1. Chapter 6
Learning and Memory

2. What is Learning 4 Factors that forms the definition of learning:
Learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance;
Learning results in an inferred change in memory;
Learning is the result of experience; and
Learning is relatively permanent

3. Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning
- a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a reflexive response that was originally evoked by a different stimulus
- Proposed by Ivan Pavlov

4. Termininologies Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without any prior conditioning (no learning needed for the response to occur)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
An unlearned reaction/response to an uncontioned stimulus that occurs without prior conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of prior conditioning

5. Theories of Learning Operant Conditioning
- learning in which voluntary (controllable) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished
- behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).
- Proposed B.F. Skinner

6. Types of Responses or Operants
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. • Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. • Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

7. Principles of Reinforcements
Positive reinforcement
Give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response is made
Negative reinforcement
Take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is made

8. Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement. There are many problems with using punishment, such as: - Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. - Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems. - Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school. - Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

9. Theories of Learning Observational Learning
- Also known as social learning theory
- Occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model
- Proposed Albert Bandura

10. What is Intelligence? Intelligence
capacity for goal-directed and adaptive behavior
involves certain abilities like:
profit from experience
solve problems
reason effectively
achieve goals

11. Are There Multiple Intelligences?
Social Intelligence
the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
Emotional Intelligence
ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

12. Are There Multiple Intelligences?
Savant Syndrome
condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill e.g.
computation
drawing

13. Gardner’s Types of Intelligence

14. Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude Test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance
aptitude is the capacity to learn
Achievement Test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned

15. The Dynamics of Intelligence
Mental Retardation
a condition of limited mental ability
indicated by intelligence scores below 70
produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life
varies from mild to profound

16. The Dynamics of Intelligence
Degrees of Mental Retardation
Level Typical Intelligence Scores Percentage of the Retarded Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild % May learn academic skills up to
sixth-grade level. Adults may, with
assistance, achieve self-supporting
social and vocational skills.
Moderate May progress to second-grade level.
academically. Adults may contribute
to their own support by labor in
sheltered workshops.
Severe May learn to talk and perform simple
work tasks under close supervision
but are generally unable to profit from
vocational training.
Profound Below Require constant aid and supervision.

17. The Dynamics of Intelligence
Down syndrome
retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in genetic make-up

18. MEMORY
Memory is learning that has persisted over time; it is information that has been acquired, stored, and can be retrieved. To a psychologist, evidence that learning persists includes these three measures of retention, which we will explore later in the chapter:
• recall—retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall.
• recognition—identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question
tests your recognition.
• relearning—learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later
time. When you study for a final exam or engage a language used in early childhood,
you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.

19. MEMORY
encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage the retention of encoded information over time.
retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage.
sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
short - term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
long - term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

20. Information Processing System
Environment
Working Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory

21. amnesia Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
amnesia Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. retrograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event. An inability to retrieve information from one’s past. anterograde amnesia Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury. An inability to form new memories.

22. Improving Memory
Rehearse repeatedly. To master material, use distributed (spaced) practice. To learn a concept, give yourself many separate study sessions. New memories are weak; exercise them and they will strengthen.
Make the material meaningful. You can build a network of retrieval cues by taking text and class notes in your own words. Apply the concepts to your own life. Form images. Understand and organize information. Relate the material to what you already know or have experienced. Restate concepts in your own words.

23. Improving Memory
Activate retrieval cues. Mentally re - create the situation and the mood in which your original learning occurred. Jog your memory by allowing one thought to cue the next.
Use mnemonic devices. Asso ciate items with peg words. Make up a story that incorporates vivid images of the items. Chunk information into acronyms. Create rhythmic rhymes (“i before e, except after c”).
Minimize interference. Study before sleep. Do not schedule back - to - back study times for topics that are likely to interfere with each other, such as Spanish and French.

24. Improving Memory
Sleep more. During sleep, the brain reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory. Sleep deprivation disrupts this process.
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you don’t yet know.
Don’t be lulled into overconfidence by your ability to recognize information. Outline sections on a blank page. Define the terms and concepts listed at each chapter’s end before turning back to their definitions. Take practice tests.