1. Timber

2. Sources of Timber
The source of timber supply is the trees in the forest.

3. Cross-section of a Tree

4. WOOD:
The organic matter obtained from trees is called wood.
TIMBER:
The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction or engineering purpose is called timber.

5. LUMBER: The sawed wood meant for construction in the form of boards is called lumber.

6. Structure of a Tree

7. Classification of trees
Exogenous
Conifers
Deciduous
Endogenous

8. e.g. palm, bamboo, etc. TYPES OF TREES:
Trees are classified into two groups Endogenous trees:
The trees which grow inwards in longitudinal fibrous mass are called endogenous trees.
e.g. palm, bamboo, etc.

9. 2. Exogenous tress :
The trees which grow in out wards across horizontal section of stem are called exogenous trees. These trees are only fit for engineering construction.

10. Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types
Exogenous trees are again subdivided in to two types. Conifers or Evergreen:
They give soft wood.
They have pointed leaves.
Examples:
Deodar
Pine
Chir
Kail,etc

11. Deciduous or Broad leaf Trees: These have hard wood.
These have broad leaves.
Examples:
Teak
Sal
Shisham, etc.

12. Comparison of softwood and hard wood
S.No.
Item
Soft woods
Hard woods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Annual Rings
Color
Density
Fire resistance
Weight
Strength
Distinct
Light
Low
Poor
Strong for direct pull & weak for equal resisting thrust
Indistinct
Dark
High
More
Heavy
Strong for resisting tension, compression & shear

13. On the basis of its Position:-
Standing timber: implies a living tree.
Rough Timber: forms a part of the felled tree.
Converted Timber: logs of timber sawn into planks, posts, etc.

14. Modulus of Elasticity
Group A: E = 12.5 GPa
Group B: E = 9.8 GPa to 12.5 GPa
Group C: E = 5.6 GPa to 9.8 Gpa
Durability
High Durability: average life of 120 months and over.
Moderate Durability: average life of less than 120 months but of 60 months or more.
Low Durability: average life of less than 60 months.

15. Seasoning characteristics
High refractory (Class A) : slow and difficult to season-free from defects.
Moderately refractory (Class B): may be seasoned free from surface defects, etc. if some protection is given against rapid drying.
Non refractory (Class C) : These can be rapidly seasoned free from defects.
Grading
Select-Grade
Grade I
Grade II

16. Structure of tree:
From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories
1. Macro structure
2. Micro structure

17. 1. Macro structure:
The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or at a small magnification is called macro structure. The following figure shows the macro structure of exogenous tree.

18. (a) Pith: The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called pith or medulla.
(b) Heart wood: The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood.
(c) Sap wood: The cuter annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap wood.
(d) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium layer.

19. (e)Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as inner bark.
(f) Outer Bark: The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark. (g) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer are known as medullary rays.

20. 2. Micro structure:
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called micro structure.
Conductive cells
Mechanical cells
Storage cells

21. 2. Micro structure:
The structure of wood apparent only at great magnifications is called micro structure.
Conductive cells
Mechanical cells
Storage cells

22. Characteristics of good timbers
Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.
Color: A color should preferably be dark
Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.

23. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is removed.
Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.
Hardness: A good timber should be hard.
Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion.

24. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning
Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber
Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter etc.

25. Structure: The structure should be uniform.
Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibration.
Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.

26. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.

27. SEASONING OF TIMBER:
As fresh timber which is obtained from trees contains about 30 to 40 % sap or moisture. This sap is very harmful for the life of a timber. Therefore, it is necessary to remove that sap by applying some special methods. All those methods which are used for removing the sap from timber are collectively termed as seasoning of timber.

28. Advantages of seasoned timber:
It has reduced weight,
It is strong and durable,
It has resistance to decay or rot,
It takes high polish,
It is easier to work,
Its life is more.

29. Types of Timber Seasoning:
The main types of timber seasoning are as under.
Natural or Air Seasoning
Artificial Seasoning
Kiln Seasoning,
Boiling,
Chemical Seasoning,
Electric Seasoning, &
(3) Water Seasoning

30. Natural Seasoning:
In the air seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying, seasoning of timber, timber is dried by direct action of air, wind and sun. In this method, the timber logs are arranged one over the other, keeping some space or distance between them for air circulation of fresh air. Generally this type of seasoning requires few months to over a year, this is very slow process.

31. (2) ARTIFICIAL SEASONING:
Kiln Seasoning,
Boiling ,
Chemical Seasoning, &
Electric Seasoning.

32. Kiln Seasoning:
In kiln seasoning timber is placed in a chamber with some special heating arrangement. In this process one thing should be kept in mind that heating system should be under control, other wise timber will be crack or wrap . The time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days. This is quick process.

33. b) Boiling:
Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is a very quick but expensive
process of seasoning.

34. (c) Chemical Seasoning:
In chemical seasoning carbon dioxide, ammonium carbonate or urea are used as agents for seasoning, those are applied in dry state, the inter surface of timber dries first than outer side. This ensures uniform seasoning. The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.

35. (d) Electric Seasoning:
In this method electric current is passed through the timber logs. The time required for this seasoning is 05 to 08 hours.

36. (3) Water Seasoning:
In water seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in the flowing water. The sap present in timber is washed away. After that logs are taken out from water and are kept in open air, so water present in timber would be dried by air. The time required for this type of seasoning is 2 to 4 weeks.

37. USES OF TIMEBR:
Timber is used in:
1.Building construction,
2.Construction of house posts,
3.Construction of beams,
4.Construction of rafters,
5.Construction of bridges,
6.Construction of piles, poles and railway sleepers,
Continued

38. 6.For furniture making.
7.For light packing cases,
8.For high packing cases (for machinery and similar stores),
9.For manufacturing of agricultural implements,
10.For making toys, etc,
11.For manufacturing of veneers and ply woods.

39. Identifications of Timber
General Properties
Color – a darker color in wood indicates greater durability.
Odor – it is present only on freshly cut trees.
Hardness – is the ability of wood to withstand indentations caused by harder bodies.
Density – densest woods are generally the strongest.

40. Identifications of Timber
Grain - Depending on the actual alignment, the grain may be straight, spiral, interlocked, wavy or irregular.
Spiral Grain
Interlocked Grain
Wavy Grain
Texture - In hardwoods, the texture depends upon the size and distribution vessels and rays. In softwoods, it is determined by the size and distribution of tracheid (long tubular cell).

41. Identifications of Timber
Luster- is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly.
Workability- the relative case in which wood is shaped cut and fastened together than the others.
Warping- is the general term used to describe any variation from a true surface.
Moisture content- is a percentage of the mass of water over the mass of wood fibre in a piece of timber.
Specific Gravity- is the ratio found by dividing the weight of a substance by the weight of an equal volume of pure water.