1. the republican SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

2. The Senate Council of ‘elders’
300 members at beginning of period, 900 by end
At first appointed by kings; Sulla made quaestorship entry requirement
Met in the ‘curia’ (senate house) in the forum
Summoned by the consuls, or later by tribunes as well
Consul(s) presided over meeting
No political parties; senators spoke as individuals
Sessions held between dawn and sunset
Wore white toga with broad purple stripe

3. The Senate; the procedure
The chairman or another magistrate would deliver a ‘report’ (relatio)
Each senator was the asked his opinion (sententia) according to rank (ex-consuls, ex-praetors etc. Patricians took preference over plebeians)
After the debate, different opinions were put to the vote by a division (discessio). Some resolutions required a quorum.
Any resolution (senatus consultum) could be vetoed by the tribunes. It had no legislative force, but was in fact normally binding.
Records were kept by the quaestors in the aerarium (public treasury).

4. Functions of the senate
Advised the magistrates in matters of domestic and foreign policy, finance and religion, and on their legislative proposals
Could invalidate laws already voted by pointing out technical flaws in procedure
Suggested nomination of a dictator
Assigned the various duties to the magistrates
Marked out the two provinces destined for the consuls
In wartime, they influenced the choice and extension of commisions, fixed the number of levies and criticized the conduct of the war.

5. Functions of the Senate (continued)
Supervised revenue and expenditure, and controlled the aerarium (public treasury)
Regulated the coinage
Practical decision of war, conclusion of peace treaties and conduct of foreign policy usually in the hands of the senate (formal declaration of war and ratification of treaties belonged to Comitia)
Received ambassadors and appointed senators to help magistrates in concluding treaties and settling organisation of conquered territories.
Overall control of religious life of the state.

7. Consul Chief magistrates of Republic
Chief magistrates of Republic
2 elected each year : not get too powerful, keep an eye on each other
Took over jobs of king, therefore:
Head of State
Chief Judge
Chief General
Elected by comitia centuriata; invested with power by comitia curiata
Opened to plebeians in 367BC

8. Praetor
At first only one, then second added, then gradually increased to 16 by time of Caesar.
Regulated legal procedure, appointed juries to try cases
Elected by comitia centuriata; invested with power by comitia curiata
Opened to plebeians in 337BC

9. Quaestor Two elected annually by the comitia tributa
Two main functions:
preparation of evidence for public prosecutions
management of state accounts
Also in charge of state treasury; received and paid out all public money.
A quaestor accompanied a general on campaign to manage all finances + one attached to each province.
Therefore numbers had to grow. By the time of Caesar there were 40.
Opened to plebeians 421BC

10. Aedile Plebeian aediles: Two elected annually by comitia tributa
Only plebeians eligible
Kept the plebiscita in the temple of Ceres
Special charge of all buildings
Assisted in judicial work

11. Curule aediles Two elected annually Patricians only
Kept the senatus consulta in the temple of Saturn
Superintended public games
Looked after roads, public buildings, markets etc together with
plebeian aediles
304BC both sets of aediles thrown open to either patricians or plebeians
Two more added by Caesar in 44BC to superintend the corn dole

12. Tribune Full title = tribuni plebis (‘tribunes of the people’)
Full title = tribuni plebis (‘tribunes of the people’)
Two elected annually by comitia tributa
Only plebeians eligible
Chief powers/rights:
ius auxilium The right of protecting a citizen from the actions of a magistrate
intercessio The right of putting a veto on intended acts of all other magistrates, including other tribunes
presidency of plebeian assemblies
right to put rogationes to plebeian assemblies which, if accepted became plebiscita
right to coerce and punish plebeians

13. Powers confined to city limits
Protected by religious sanction (sacrosanctus)
Number gradually increased to 10
Could summon the senate, and, by 216BC, allowed to speak in it
Lex Hortensia of 287BC made their plebiscita binding on all citizens

14. Censor
Two elected by comitia centuriata every five years; held office for 18 months
Chief duties: hold the lustrum of citizens
prepare the list of citizens for the senate
give out public contracts for collecting taxes etc
manage finances of the republic
Also inquired into ‘conduct’ (both public and private) of every citizen; could degrade a citizen from his tribe, remove senators from senate etc.
First plebeian censor 351BC

15. Dictator Exceptional office, only for times of emergency
Appointed by the consuls for 6 months only
Superseded all existing magistrates and assemblies
As soon as crisis solved, should resign
Could not leave Italy
Had no power over the treasury
Appointed a magister equitum as his deputy

16. Pontifex Maximus Chief priest Head of state religion
Chief priest
Head of state religion
Presided over college of ‘pontifices’, responsible for regulation of the calendar & all important family ceremonies (eg adoption, betrothal etc)
Head of whole state clergy, including the Vestal Virgins
Very ‘political’ appointment

17. Proconsuls and Propraetors
Governors of the provinces from133BC
As names imply, former magistrates
Supreme military and judicial power in their province
No power whatever in the city
Remained in office until successor arrived (no set term of office)

18. The Legislative Assemblies
Assemblies of people summoned in groups by a magistrate
Voting was only allowed between sunrise and sunset, on days specially appointed in the calendar, when auspices had been taken
Resolutions of the comitia had to be ratified by the senate
There were four different assemblies in Rome:
The ‘Comitia Curiata’
The ‘Comitia Centuriata’
The ‘Concilium Plebis’
The Comitia Tributa’

19. The ‘Comitia Curiata’ Oldest assembly, dating back to the kings
Oldest assembly, dating back to the kings
Only patricians
Formally confirmed appointment of magistrates

20. The ‘Comitia Centuriata’
Assembly of the whole people by ‘centuries’
Originally for gathering the Roman army
Met on the Campus Martius, an open space originally outside the city
Interval of 24 days after meeting called, to allow for preliminary discussion of proposals (contio)
Passed laws (which needed to be ratified by the senate)
Elected all magistrates
Responsible for the declaration of war and peace
Court of appeal against the sentence of a consul, and a criminal court in matters of offences against the state.
Voting groups were unequal, and the patricians and richer citizens held most influence

21. The ‘Concilium Plebis’
At first an informal assembly of the people, based on tribes, and organised by the tribunes.
Elected the tribunes and plebeian aediles
Made resolutions (plebiscitia) which were regarded as binding only upon the plebeians. Enforced by tribunes.
339BC plebiscitia binding on whole community, subject to ratification of the senate
287BC plebiscitia no longer need senatorial approval. Sulla restored this, but restriction removed finally in 70BC.

22. The ‘Comitia Tributa’
Summoned by the consuls and praetors as well as tribunes
Organised by tribes, in the same way as the Concilium Plebis
Elected the quaestors and aediles.
Gradually took over the election of tribunes and other minor officers as well.
Could assemble either within or without the city, but no further that 1000 paces from it.
Judicial duties only with regard to offences against ‘the majesty of the people’
Determined by lot which of tribes should vote first
Announcing of result of votes called renuntiatio