1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Theories of Motivation

3. Motivation
=an internal state that activates behavior and directs it towards a goal
Inferred through goal-directed behavior

4. Theories: Instinct Theory
=innate tendencies that determine behavior without involving reason
BUT- does not explain behavior- only labels it

5. Theories: Drive-Reduction Theory
Need= biological or psychological requirement of an organism
A need produces a drive= an state of internal tension that motivates an individual toward a goal
If a behavior reduces a drive, the organism will begin to acquire a habit
BUT- does not take take into account other esperiences that are not explained through deprivation

6. Theories: Incentive Theory
An external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior
We like positive incentives, try to avoid negative incentives

7. Theories: Cognitive Theory
Extrinsic motivation- engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives
Internal motivation- engaging in activities because they are personally/internally rewarding or they fulfill our beliefs/expectations
Overjustification effect
Question #1: Which theory of motivation might best explain why you work (or do not work) to get good grades? Explain.
Which type of motivation is the stronger one?

8. Biological and Social Motives

9. Biological
Behavior works to correct imbalances and deviation from an organism’s normal state (homeostasis)
Hunger- different parts of the hypothalamus will tell you to eat or to stop eating (lateral- LH and ventromedial- VMH)
Hypothalamus affected by temperature, glucose entering the cells, set-point

10. Biological
Psychosocial factors- external cues (smell, others, availability)
Obesity- studies show it is often caused by external cues
They eat not because they are hungry but because they see something good or their watches tell them it is time to eat
Metabolism and exercise also affect weight

11. Social
Need for achievement measured with TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)
High need- display persistence on tasks, ability to perform better on tasks, set challenging but realistic goals, compete with others to win, attracted to challenging tasks or careers
Many become entrepreneurs
Not always interesting or artistically sensitive, less likely to value intimacy
Will choose tasks of moderate difficulty to learn where to improve

12. Social
Fear of failure- displayed when people choose easy tasks offering assured success or impossible tasks with no chance of success
Keeps positive feelings but may prevent us from taking responsibility for actions
Fear of success- men and women
Idea of being successful in all but a few careers is odd and unlikely, therefore it is avoided
Other theories
Expectancy-value
Competency

13. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Starting at the bottom of a “pyramid”, we satisfy our basic needs, then move up to the next level
If we are at a higher level and our basic needs are not satisfied, we move back down
Incorporates many factors- biological, psychological
One need must be satisfied before moving on (may not be true)

15. Emotion

16. Emotion Motivation- needs that lead to goal-directed behavior
Emotions- feelings associated with these decisions and activities
Functions- like biological drives, anticipated emotions, make decisions and communicate what’s going on inside
Emotional intelligence- ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making

17. Emotion
= a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior
3 parts- physical, behavioral, cognitive
Basic facial expressions are innate and universally recognized
Facial Action Coding System (FACS)- 46 separate movements
We are taught appropriate emotions for societal standards

18. Physiological Theories
Used in application to lie detection
James-Lange- bodily reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotions
Smiling--> Feel happy
Different emotions are not necessarily associated with specific reactions
Cannon-Bard- simultaneous burst of activity in the brain and the gut reactions

19. Cognitive Theories
Bodily changes and thinking work together to produce emotions
Schachter-Singer- When you cannot interpret physical reactions- you take clues from environment
May not first have physiological arousal before emotion
Opponent-Process- sympathetic (energizes) and parasympathetic (relaxes) systems act together to regulate emotions; all classically conditioned
Question: How do you think the Schachter-Singer theory could explain the way panic runs through a crowd?

20. EXTRA- Theories of Motivation
A continuum is a scale on which a category of items falls. Create a continuum with inherited or physiological motives at one end and social motives that are learned on the other end. Make a list of common motives for actions you perform. Place each motive on the continuum.
Examples:
Hunger and thirst are purely physiological motives and are at one end of the continuum.
Achievement is a purely social motive and would fall at the other end.

21. EXTRA- Theories of Motivation
Consider how society and societal values affect the expression of competitiveness. Think about what motivates people to be competitive. Respond to the following in a 1 page paper.
What are the motivations behind competition in sports? In other arenas?
Why is competitiveness accepted in some arenas, like sports, but rejected in others, like being first in line at the grocery store?
Is competition constructive or destructive?
When does competition cross the line and become a socially unacceptable form of aggression?

22. EXTRA- Theories of Motivation
Make charts listing common incentives for the following types of people: student, salesperson, college graduate, couple getting married, psychologist

23. EXTRA- Theories of Motivation
When you are motivated, three things are true: you are energized to engage in an activity, you focus your energies toward reaching a goal, and you have differing intensities of feelings about achieving your goal. Use the criteria above to describe two activities or behaviors you engaged in today.

24. EXTRA- Theories of Motivation
Event (food deprivation)--> drive (hunger) → action (eating) → result (drive reduction)
Complete other examples of this chain to demonstrate the drive-reduction theory

25. EXTRA- Biological and Social Motives
Create a TV commercial for a household product. Videotape your commercial. Establish roles for each member and make sure everyone is involved. The commercial should attempt to subtly persuade people that one or more of their needs will be satisfied if they buy the product.
Which needs were the commercials directed toward? How successful were the commercials in promising to satisfy those needs?

26. EXTRA- Biological and Social Motives
Research a political or historical figure of your choosing. Identify the motivations behind the individual’s success or rise to power or prominence. Write a short informative essay explaining the individual's motivations in terms of one or more of the theories of motivation discussed in this chapter.
Share the results. Compare and contrast the motivations of the different individuals.

27. EXTRA- Biological and Social Motives
List things that are important in your lives- either present-day concerns or future aspirations.
Evaluate the items in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy and classify them by type of need.

28. EXTRA- Emotions
Charles Darwin believed that emotions develop because they have survival value. What is the validity of this generalization?
What are the survival values of emotions such as hate, anger, joy, love, fear, and empathy?
If emotions are indeed linked to survival, do animals have emotions?

29. Extra- Emotions
Lie detection continues to have its advocates and its detractors. Conduct research to determine to what extent the results of lie detector tests are admissible as evidence in courts of law. Based on the research, hold a debate on the following: Polygraphs should be admissible evidence in determining a defendant’s guilt or innocence.

30. EXTRA- Emotions
With a partner, select 10 emotions to express. Play a variation of charades, with one person attempting to convey each of these emotions by facial expression alone.
What emotions are harder to convey than others?
Are there consistent differences in interpretation between individuals?
How important do you think context (the social situation in which the facial expression occurs) is in perceiving other people’s emotions?
Summarize your group interaction.