1. Reading Fluency as an Emergent Dimension
Jack S. Damico, Ph. D. Holly Damico, M.S.
Ryan L. Nelson, Ph.D. Karen E. Lynch, Ph.D. Katie Abendroth, Ph.D.
The University of Louisiana at Lafayette

2. FLUENCY
“The ability to read a text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression” (NRP, 2000)
“The ability to read expressively, meaningfully, with appropriate phrasing, and with appropriate speed” (Rasinski & Padak, 2001)

3. FLUENCY Parameters often cited for Fluency
Speed (words per minute, reading rate)
Accuracy (word recognition, decoding)
Phrasing (words per phrase group, intonation, reading with punctuation)
Smoothness (hesitations, false starts, repetitions)
Pace (even rate, conversational, degree of labor)

4. Over the past decade there has been increasing attention paid to reading fluency as an emergent dimension of reading comprehension rather than a component skill of reading
This has been asserted by a number of theorists (Perkins, Smith, Goodman, Flurkey) but the data for this assertion is lacking.
Previously, (ASHA 2008) we provided three sets of preliminary data from LD students with reading difficulties in support of fluency as an emergent dimension.

5. Previous Data Provided
INCREASE in Fluency has
High correlation with familiar text (.81)
High correlation with familiar content (.89)
High correlation with high quality miscue production (.92)
High correlation with effective retellings (.84)
When fluency DECREASES during reading:
81% of next miscue is Low quality
4X the scan regressions within the next two sentences

6. Previous Data Provided
There was a greater consistent increase in fluency after “weaving in meaning” rather than “non-meaningful” content.
Meaning %
Non-meaningful - 21%
These last data, however, were preliminary
Only 80 video-taped instances were analyzed
More data are needed to confirm this last finding

7. OBJECTIVE
To provide more detailed data on the relationship between the re-assertion of meaning and fluency during authentic reading by struggling readers
This study examines the extent to which struggling readers become more fluent after meaning is re-asserted (as defined by fluency loss) as opposed to other non-meaningful assertions.
If fluency tends to increase once meaning is re-established versus a condition when the assertion is non-meaningful, then the argument is that the increase in fluency is an emergent dimension of increased meaning-making on the part of the struggling reader.

8. METHODOLOGY
The overall research paradigm employed is a qualitative research paradigm that emphasizes data collection within the natural and authentic contexts in the field and the clinic. Specifically interactional analysis was employed to examine videotaped shared reading sessions with each individual. The flexibility of the research design enabled modification of the foci and methods employed if the data suggest other areas of research interest.

9. Participants
Five struggling readers formally diagnosed with language and learning disabilities
Ages range from 8-1 to 10-6
Each has had at least three years of classroom instruction from a phonics-based reading program in the public schools
Each is able to read short passages from familiar trade publications commonly referred to as beginning “chapter books”
Each was enrolled in a summer University Language and Literacy Project (using meaning-based approaches) to assist their reading proficiency

10. Data Collection
Ten 30-minute shared reading sessions (two for each participant) were videotaped within a two week period in the 4th and 5th weeks of the ULL Summer Language and Literacy Project
An interactional analysis was employed to examine each videotaped sessions identify each instance that met the targeted condition.

11. Targeted Condition
While reading independently, a participant’s fluency is reduced by at least three points on the Rasinski 20 point fluency scale
The student clinician inserts a comment within the next five words read (can be a designated meaningful comment or a neutral comment)
The child continues reading for at least five words

12. Data Analysis
An interactional analysis is employed as a variation of conversation analysis in that we operated within the constraints and limits of that tradition of inquiry
The focus within the targeted condition , however, was two-fold:
Each clinician insertion was identified as either meaning-based or neutral
A determination was made whether the next five to ten words read exhibited an increase in fluency (as defined by an increase of at least three points on the 20-point modified Rasinski Fluency Scale) or not.

13. Meaningful insertions
Neutral insertions
Affirmation (e.g., “good”)
Discourse device (e.g., “OK”)
Negative (e.g., “no”)
Instruction not meaningful to the text (e.g., “sound it out”)
Clarification (e.g., “what”)
Meaningful insertions
Intermittent synopsis of what has been read
Intermittent Summary
Foreshadowing
Provide some overt prediction
Imagery or visualization
A meta-literacy comment
Restatement

14. RESULTS 347 total instances met the Targeted Condition
70.02% (243/347) of the instances exhibited insertions that were meaningful (as defined in this study)
29.97% (104/347) of the instances exhibited insertions that were non-meaningful (as defined in this study)
76.54% (186/243) of the meaningful insertions resulted in increased fluency (as defined in this study)
18.26% (19/104) the non-meaningful insertions resulted in increased fluency (as defined in this study)

15. Data for each Participant according to Targeted Instances and Percentages of Fluency Increase by Insertion Type
Participants
Targeted
Instances
Meaningful
Insertions
Increased
Fluency
Percentage
Non-
One
118 94
68.1% 24
29.2%
Two 35 27
77.8% 8
12.5%
Three 77 63
85.7% 14
28.6%
Four 68 41
82.9%
11.1%
Five 49 18
72.2% 31
12.9%

16. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the significant increase in fluency as meaning is re-asserted, fluency appears to be best conceptualized as an epiphenomenal result of the comprehensibility derived from the process of reading.
It may function as an indication of the degree of comprehension during reading.
Fluency is an emergent product of the reader’s ongoing comprehension of the text.

17. Fluency as an Emergent Dimension
Fluency Associated with overall proficiency (Comprehension)
Lack of Fluency a significant factor among struggling readers
A generally reliable predictor of reading comprehension in early grades
A focus on meaningfulness is the best way to achieve fluency

18. Practical Implications
Fluency should be viewed as an emergent phenomenon not as a component skill
It has diagnostic value in discerning comprehension
It has pedagogical value in employing an intervention at sites of fluency reduction
Increases the efficiency and effectiveness of intervention efforts

19. OBSERVING ACTUAL READING
Check for Change in Fluency
For Beginning Struggling Readers
Level of Continuous Phrasing
Smoothness
For Intermediate Struggling Readers
Appropriate Intonation
Reading with Punctuation
Check for “Shadowing”

20. Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention
Focus should be on authentic reading of meaningful texts for authentic purposes
Focus on the change in fluency as an index of when to intervene during authentic reading

21. Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention
When using documented strategies to increase fluency, recognize the force of meaningfulness
Model Fluency
Repeated Readings
Practice with familiar Texts
Poetry rereads
Readers Theater
Repertory Groups
Paired Reading
Fluency Development Lesson

22. Literacy Pedagogy and Intervention
Recognize that meaning/comprehension is the crucial variable
Keep this in mind with
Materials
Activities
Motivations
Techniques
Beware the Pedagogical or Curricular Fallacy

23. Summary Fluency should be viewed as an Emergent Dimension
There are specific Diagnostic and Pedagogical Implications
Systematic Observation and Qualitative Research can provide some illumination on these matters