1. Writing Clearly and Concisely
Chapter 3:
Writing Clearly and Concisely

2. Organization : Length: A paper shouldn’t be too long
Organization : Length: A paper shouldn’t be too long. The main points should be stated clearly and directly. Organizing a manuscript with headings : Using headings helps us to organize ideas and help the reader anticipate key points . Levels of Heading :Heading structure alerts readers to the order of ideas within the paper. The heading style recommended by APA consists of 5 possible formatting arrangement . (shown in page 62) seriation : Just as the heading structures alerts readers to the order of ideas within the paper, seriation helps the reader understand the organization of key points within sections, paragraphs, sentences.

3. Writing style
Continuity in Presentation of Ideas Continuity can be achieved in several ways. For example , punctuation marks contribute to continuity by showing relationship between ideas. They cue the reader to the pauses, inflection, subordination, and pacing normally heard in speech. Another way to achieve continuity is through the use of transitional words. Some transition devices are time links(then, next, after, while, since), cause effect links(therefore, consequently, as a result), addition links (in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly) , and contrast links( but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although). …

4. Smoothness of Expression
Inserting the unexpected ; omitting the expected; and suddenly shifting the topic, tense, or person- can confuse readers of scientific prose. Therefore, try to avoid these devices and aim for clear communication. Tone In describing your research , present the ideas and findings directly, but aim for an interesting and compelling style and a tone that reflects your involvement with the problem. Scientific writing often contrasts the position of different researchers. Differences should be presented in a professional, noncombative manner. Economy of Expression Say only what needs to be said. The number of printed pages a journal can publish is limited, and editors often request that authors shorten submitted papers. You can tighten long papers by eliminating redundancy, wordiness, jargon, evasiveness and overuse of passive voice,…

5. Precision and Clarity Word choice
Precision and Clarity Word choice. Make certain that every word means exactly what you intended it to mean. An example is that like is often used when such as is meant: correct: Articles by psychologists such as Skinner and Watson …. In correct: Articles by psychologists like Skinner and Watson …. Colloquial expressions. Avoid colloquial expressions, which diffuse meaning. Jargon. Jargon is the continuous use of technical vocabulary, even in places where that vocabulary is not relevant, and you should avoid using such jargons.

6. Pronouns. Pronouns confuse readers unless the referent for each pronoun is obvious. Comparisons. Ambiguous comparisons result from omission of key verbs . Attribution. Inappropriately or illogically attributing action in an effort to be objective can be misleading. Examples of undesirable attribution action include the use of the third person, anthropomorphism, and use of the editorial we. For example: correct: We reviewed the literature. Incorrect: The authors reviewed the literature.

7. Linguistic Devices Devices that attract attention to words , sounds, or other embellishments instead of to ideas are inappropriate in specific writing. Avoid heavy alliteration, rhyming, and poetic expressions. Strategies to Improve Writing Style Authors use various strategies in putting their thoughts on paper. Three approaches to achieve effective communication are(a) writing from an outline; (b) putting aside the first draft, then rereading it later; (c) asking a colleague to review and critique the draft for you.

8. Reducing Bias in Language Scientific writing must be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the group or groups being studied . Authors who write for APA publications avoid biased assumptions about people in their writing . Constructions that might imply bias against persons on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age are unacceptable.

9. General Guidelines for Reducing Bias Guideline 1: Describe at the Appropriate Level of Specificity Precision is essential in specific writing; when you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. For example , using man to refer to all human beings is simply not accurate as the phrase women and men. Guideline 2: Be sensitive to labels Respect people’s preferences ; call people what they prefer to be called. (e.g., people diagnosed with schizophrenia instead of the schizophrenics ) Guideline 3: Acknowledge Participation Write about people in you study in a way that acknowledges their participation . Descriptive terms such as college students, children, or respondents provide precise information about the individuals taking part in a research project.

10. Grammar and Usage : Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences distract the reader, introduce ambiguity, and generally obstruct communication. Verbs: Prefer the active voice Select tense carefully Select the appropriate mood Agreement of Subject and Verb: A verb must agree in number with its subject. Pronouns: Each pronoun should refer clearly to its antecedent.

11. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and use of adverbs An adjective or an adverb must clearly refer to the word it modifies. Misplaced modifiers. Because of their placement in a sentence, misplaces modifiers ambiguously modify a word. You can eliminate misplaces modifiers by placing an adjective or adverb as close as possible to the word it modifies. For example: Correct: On the basis of this assumption, we developed a model. Incorrect: Based on the assumption, the model was developed. Dangling modifiers. Dangling modifiers have no referent in the sentence. By writing in the active voice, you can avoid many dangling modifiers . For example: Correct: Using this procedure, I tested the participants. [I, not the participants, used the procedure.] Incorrect: The participants were tested using this procedure.

12. Adverbs. Adverbs can be used as transitional words
Adverbs. Adverbs can be used as transitional words. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Some adverbs, such as fortunately, similarly, certainly, consequently, conversely, and regrettably can be used as transitional words. Relative pronouns and Subordinate Conjunctions. Select pronouns (who, whom, that, which ) and Conjunctions (since, while, although) with care; interchanging them may reduce the precision of your meaning.

13. Parallel Construction To enhance the reader's understanding, present parallel or coordinate form. Make certain that all elements of the parallelism are present before and after the coordinating conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, nor ). For example: Correct: between 2.5 and 4.0 years of age Incorrect: between years of age