1. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

2. Theories of Personality
Type &trait
Behavioural
Humanistic
Psychoanalytic
NEO-FREUDIAN
Theories of Personality
Theories of Personality
A number of approaches and theories have been developed to understand and explain behavioural differences among individuals, and behavioural consistencies within an individual. These theories are based on different models of human behaviour. Each throws light on some, but not all, aspects of personality.

3. Behavioural approach importance to the internal dynamics of behaviour.
definable, observable, and measurable data
learning of stimulus-response connections and their reinforcement.
According to them, personality can be best understood as the response of an individual to the environment.
Different learning principles that involve the use of stimuli, responses, and reinforcement in different ways.
The theories of classical conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Skinner), and observational learning (Bandura).
This approach does not give importance to the internal dynamics of behaviour. The behaviourists believe in data, which they feel are definable, observable, and measurable.
They focus on learning of stimulus-response connections and their reinforcement.
According to them, personality can be best understood as the response of an individual to the environment. They see the development simply as a change in response characteristics, i.e. a person learns new behaviours in response to new environments and stimuli.
Different learning principles that involve the use of stimuli, responses, and reinforcement in different ways. The theories of classical conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Skinner), and observational learning (Bandura) are well-known to you. These theories view learning and maintenance of behaviour from different angles. The principles of these theories have been widely used in developing personality theories.

4. Behavioural approach
For most behaviourists, the structural unit of personality is the response.
Each response is a behaviour, which is emitted to satisfy a specific need.
the core tendency that organises behaviour is the reduction of biological or social needs that energise behaviour. This is accomplished through responses (behaviours) that are reinforced.
For most behaviourists, the structural unit of personality is the response. Each response is a behaviour, which is emitted to satisfy a specific need.
For example, all of us eat because of hunger, but we are also very choosy about foods children do not like eating many of the vegetables (e.g., spinach, pumpkin, gourds, etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them. Why do they do so?
According to the behavioural approach, children may initially learn to eat such vegetables in anticipation of appreciation (reinforcement) from their parents. Later on they may eventually learn to eat vegetables not only because their parents are pleased with this behaviour, but also because they acquire the taste of those vegetables, and find them good. Thus, the core tendency that organises behaviour is the reduction of biological or social needs that energise behaviour. This is accomplished through responses (behaviours) that are reinforced.

5. i. Classical Conditioning
Ivan P. Pavlov : A Russian Physiologist was the first to study and write about the basic principles of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to “learning to make a reflex response to the stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex”.
Ivan P. Pavlov : A Russian Physiologist was the first to study and write about the basic principles of classical conditioning.
Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands automatically start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. This is a normal reflex in both animals and humans. The food causes a particular reaction, the salivation.
Classical conditioning refers to “learning to make a reflex response to the stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex”.

6. Key Terms in classical conditioning
STIMULUS
RESPONSE
CONDITIONING
NEUTRAL STIMULUS
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS)
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR)
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)
CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR)
STIMULUS : Any event, object or experience that causes a response by the organism.
RESPONSE : Any reaction by the organism towards any stimulus in the environment
CONDITIONING : the act or process of training a person or animal to do something or to behave in a certain way in a particular situation
NEUTRAL STIMULUS : The stimulus that has no effect on the desired response
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS): The term unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring”. This is the stimulus that originally leads to a reflex, involuntary response.
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) :The reflex response to the unconditioned stimulus is called the unconditioned response.
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) : Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.
CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): It refers to a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

7. PAVLOV & HIS SALIVATING DOGS -THE EXPERIMENT
Pavlov was basically interested in measuring the salivation process in Dogs. For this purpose he made a surgery in the dog’s neck connecting the gustatory tube with the saliva measuring jar.
Pavlov did a classic experiment in which he paired the ringing of the bell with the presentation of food to see if the dogs would eventually salivate to the sound of the bell.
Since the bell did not normally produce salivation, it was the Neutral Stimulus (NS) before any conditioning took place. The NS (Bell) was repeatedly paired with the UCS (food) to elicit the response of salivation. On repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS, the organism acquires the desired response i.e. salivation on the sound of bell. This acquisition of a new response due to the association between the bell and food is termed as Conditioning.
Food is thus the Unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation which follows it, an Unconditioned response (UR). After conditioning, salivation started to occur at the sound of bell. The bell becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned response (CR). This kind of conditioning is called Classical Conditioning.
It is also called S-S learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal for another stimulus. Here, one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus.

8. Other Concepts in Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalisation
Stimulus discrimination
Extinction: The disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus or the removal of the reinforce.
Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.
Stimulus Generalisation: the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus with conditioned response.
Stimulus discrimination: the tendency to stop making a generalised response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

9. Case of “Little Albert”
Fears are learned behaviours
The white rat was associated with the loud noise which resulted in fear response in the child.

10. Are you classically conditioned with something?
REFLECTION SPOT…
Are you classically conditioned with something?

11. ii. Operant Conditioning
B.F. SKINNER was the first to study and investigate the principles of Operant Conditioning.
Also called Instrumental conditioning.
Skinner studied the occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates on the environment which he called Operants.
OPERANTS
Conditioning of operant behaviour is called Operant conditioning.
It is a kind of learning in which behaviour is learned, maintained or changed through its consequences (Reinforcers).
Also termed as S-R conditioning.
B.F. SKINNER was the first to study and investigate the principles of Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning is also called Instrumental conditioning.
Skinner studied the occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates on the environment which he called Operants.
OPERANTS : Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control. The term operants is used because the organism operates on environment.
Conditioning of operant behaviour is called Operant conditioning.
It is a kind of learning in which behaviour is learned, maintained or changed through its consequences (Reinforcers). That is why it is termed as S-R conditioning.

12. Key Terms in Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
OPERANTS
REINFORCER/ REINFORCEMENT
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
PUNISHMENT
OPERANTS : Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control. The term operants is used because the organism operates on environment.
REINFORCER/ REINFORCEMENT : any stimulus or event, which increases he probability of the occurrence of a desired response or strengthens the tendency to make a response.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT: stimuli that have positive consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur. For example, food, water, medals, praise, money , status, information etc.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: stimuli that have negative consequences. They lead to learning of escape and avoidance responses.
PUNISHMENT: It is different from negative reinforcement. Use of punishment reduces or suppresses the response while negative reinforce increases the probability of avoidance or escape response. Mild and delayed punishment has no effect. The stronger the punishment the more lasting is the suppression effect but it is not permanent.

13. Skinner and his Skinner box
Skinner conducted his studies on rats and pigeons in specially made boxes called the Skinner Box. A Hungry rat was placed in the chamber, which was so built that the rat could move inside but could not come out.
In the Chamber there was a lever, which was connected to a food container kept on the top of the chamber. When the lever was pressed, a food pellet drops on the plate placed close to the lever.
While moving around and touching the walls (exploratory behaviour), the hungry rat accidently presses the lever and a food pellet drops on the plate and the hungry rat eats it. In the next trial, after a while the exploratory behaviour again starts. As the number of trials increases, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food.
Conditioning is complete when the rat presses the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber.
Thus, lever pressing is an operant response and getting the food is its consequence.
The response of pressing the lever is instrumental in getting the food. That is why, this kind of learning is also called instrumental conditioning.

14. How are you reinforced by your parents or teachers?
REFLECTION SPOT…
How are you reinforced by your parents or teachers?

15. III. Observational/Social Learning/ Modelling/Imitation
Learning by Observation - Albert Bandura (1977)
Observational Learning – learning of a new behaviour through the observation of a model (watching someone else who is doing that behaviour)
Children observe adults’ behaviours at home, during social ceremonies and functions etc.
Children learn and develop various personality characteristics through observational learning.
Aggressiveness, prosocial behaviour, courtesy, politeness and diligence are acquired by this method of learning.
Learning by Observation - Albert Bandura (1977) states behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
Observational Learning – learning of a new behaviour through the observation of a model (watching someone else who is doing that behaviour)
Children observe adults’ behaviours at home, during social ceremonies and functions etc. they enact adults in their games what they observe in society, on television and read in books.
Children learn and develop various personality characteristics through observational learning. Aggressiveness, prosocial behaviour, courtesy, politeness and diligence are acquired by this method of learning.

16. Bandura and the experiment…
Bandura showed a film of five minutes duration to children. The film shows that in a large room there are numerous toys including a large Bobo doll. A grown up boy enters the room and looks around. The boy starts showing aggressive behaviour towards the toys in general and the bobo doll in particular. He hits the doll, throws it on the floor, kicks it and sits on it.
The film has three versions.
In one version, a group of children see the boy (model) being rewarded and praised by an adult for being aggressive to the doll.
In the second version, another group of children see the boy being punished for his aggressive behaviour.
In the third version, the third group of children are not shown the boy being either rewarded or punished.
After viewing a specific version of the film all the three groups of children were placed in an experimental room in which similar toys were placed around. The children were allowed to play with the toys. These groups were secretly observed and their behaviours were noted.
It was found that those children who saw aggressive model being rewarded were most aggressive.
Children who had seen the aggressive model being punished were least aggressive.
Thus in observational learning, observers acquire knowledge by observing the model’s behaviour, but performance is influenced by model’s behaviour being rewarded or punished.

17. Elements of Observational Learning
Bandura(1986) concluded, that observational learning required the presence of four elements:
Attention: People pay more attention to those people they perceive as similar to them and to people they perceive as attractive.
Memory: The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done.
Imitation: the learner must be able of reproducing or imitating the actions of the model.
Motivation: the learner must have the desire to perform the action.
Bandura(1986) concluded, that observational learning required the presence of four elements:
Attention: To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model. People pay more attention to those people they perceive as similar to them and to people they perceive as attractive.
Memory: The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as, remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show.
Imitation: the learner must be able of reproducing or imitating the actions of the model. A 2-year-old might be able to watch someone tie the shoelaces and might even remember the steps, but the 2-yr-old’s little fingers will not have the dexterity necessary for actually tying the laces.
Motivation: the learner must have the desire to perform the action.

18. Whom do you observe the most?
REFLECTION SPOT…
Whom do you observe the most?