2. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition
Emotions are adaptive responses that support survival.
Emotional components
Bodily arousal
Expressive behaviors
Conscious experiences

3. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition
Theories of emotion generally address two major questions.
Does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings
How do feeling and cognition interact?

4. Historical Emotion Theories
James-Lange Theory: Arousal comes before emotion
Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and emotion happen at the same time
Emotion - arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
Human body responses run parallel to the cognitive responses rather than causing them
Adjusting the Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotions are not just a separate mental experience. When our body responses are blocked, emotions do not feel as intense.
Our cognitions influence our emotions in many ways, including our interpretations of stimuli: “Is that a threat? Then I’m afraid.

5. Historical Emotion Theories
Schachter and Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = Emotion
Emotions have two ingredients: Physical arousal and cognitive appraisal.
Arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it.
Emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal.
Spillover effect: Spillover arousal from one event to the next—influencing a response
In a study by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in 1962, subjects experienced a spillover effect when arousal was caused by injections of what turned out to be adrenaline.
The subjects interpreted their agitation to whatever emotion the others in the room appeared to be feeling; the emotional label “spilled over” from others.

6. THE SPILLOVER EFFECT
Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other violent
confrontations.
Oleg Popov/Reuters/Landov

7. Historical Emotion Theories
Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the two-track brain
Zajonc
Sometimes emotional response take neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex and goes directly to amygdala.
Some emotional responses involve no deliberate thinking.
Lazarus
Brain processes much information without conscious awareness, but mental functioning still takes place.
Emotions arise when an event is appraised as harmless or dangerous.
Richard Lazarus ( ) notes that some “top-down” cognitive functions such as threat-appraisal can be involved, but these emotional responses can still operate without conscious thought.
Joseph LeDoux (b. 1949) and Robert Zajonc ( ) proposed their ideas in the second half of the 20th century.
Lazarus agreed that many important emotions arise from our interpretations or inferences. Zajonc and LeDoux, however,
believe that some simple emotional responses occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness, but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our dual-track mind. .

8. THE BRAIN’S PATHWAYS FOR EMOTIONS
The two-track brain processes sensory input on two different pathways. (a) Some input travels to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis and is then sent to the amygdala. (b) Other input travels directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction.

9. EMOTIONS AND THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The arousal component of emotion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions.
In a crisis, the fight-or-flight response automatically mobilized the body for action.
Arousal affects performance in different ways, depending on the task.
Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks.
ANS mobilizes body for action with stress hormones from adrenal glands, sugar from liver into bloodstream, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and slowed digestion.
When crisis passes, ANS slows and hormones gradually leave bloodstream

10. EMOTIONAL AROUSAL
Like a crisis control center, the autonomic nervous system arouses the body in a crisis and calms it when danger passes

11. PHYSIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
Different emotions have subtle indicators.
Brain scans and EEGs reveal different brain circuits for different emotions.
Depression and general negativity: Right frontal lobe activity.
Happiness, enthusiastic, and energized: Left frontal lobe activity.
More meaningful differences have been found in activity in some brain pathways and cortical areas.

12. Can a Lie Detector Reveal Lies?
In one study, polygraph experts interpreted the polygraph data of 100 people who had been suspects in theft crimes (Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984). Half the suspects were guilty and had confessed; the other half had been proven innocent. Had the polygraph experts been the judges, more than one-third of the innocent would have been declared guilty, and one-fourth of the guilty would have been declared innocent.
Polygraphs, which measure several physiological indicators of emotion, are not accurate
enough to justify widespread use in business and law enforcement. The use of guilty
knowledge questions and new forms of technology may produce better indications of lying.