1. Communication and Information Technology
Chapter 16
Communication and Information Technology

2. What Is Communication? Communication
The transfer and understanding of meaning
Interpersonal communication
Communication between two or more people
Organizational communication
All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within an organization
Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning.
1. If no information or ideas have been conveyed or transferred, communication hasn’t taken place.
2. For communication to be successful, the meaning must be imparted and understood.
3. Good communication does not require agreement with the message, just a clear understanding of the message.
4. Communication encompasses both interpersonal communication (between two or more people) and organizational communication (all the patterns, networks, and systems of communication within an organization).

3. Functions of Communication
Control
Motivation
Emotional Expression
Information
Communication serves four major functions:
1. Control: Formal and informal communications act to control individuals’ behaviours in organizations.
2. Motivation: Communications clarify for employees what is to be done, how well they have done it, and what can be done to improve performance.
3. Emotional Expression: Social interaction in the form of work group communications provides a way for employees to express themselves.
4. Information: Individuals and work groups need information to make decisions or to do their work.

4. Interpersonal Communication
Message
Source: sender’s intended meaning
Encoding
The message converted to symbolic form
Channel
The medium through which the message travels
Decoding
The receiver’s retranslation of the message
Noise
Disturbances that interfere with communications
Exhibit 10.1 illustrates the seven elements of the communication process: the communication source, the message, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver, and feedback. Note that the entire process is susceptible to noise—disturbances that interfere with the transmission, receipt, or feedback of a message.

5. The Interpersonal Communication Process
Receiver
Message
Channel
Noise
Encoding
Decoding
Feedback
Sender
Exhibit 10.1 illustrates the seven elements of the communication process: the communication source, the message, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver, and feedback. Note that the entire process is susceptible to noise—disturbances that interfere with the transmission, receipt, or feedback of a message.

6. Fitting Communication with Circumstances
Managers can use 12 questions to help them evaluate appropriate communication methods for different circumstances. 1. Feedback. How quickly can the receiver respond to the message? 2. Complexity capacity. Can the method effectively process complex messages? 3. Breadth potential. How many different messages can be transmitted using this method? 4. Confidentiality. Can communicators be reasonably sure their messages are received only by those for whom they’re intended? 5. Encoding ease. Can the sender easily and quickly use this channel?
Use these questions to determine the appropriate form of communication. See Exhibit 10.2.

7. Fitting Communication with Circumstances (cont’d)
6. Decoding ease. Can the receiver easily and quickly decode messages? 7. Time–space constraint. Do senders and receivers need to communicate at the same time and in the same space? 8. Cost. How much does it cost to use this method? 9. Interpersonal warmth. How well does this method convey interpersonal warmth? 10. Formality. Does this method have the needed amount of formality? 11. Scanability. Does this method allow the message to be easily browsed or scanned for relevant information? 12. Time of consumption. Does the sender or receiver exercise the most control over when the message is dealt with?
Use these questions to determine the appropriate form of communication. See Exhibit 10.2.

8. Interpersonal Communication Methods
Face-to-face
Telephone
Group meetings
Formal presentations
Memos
Postal mail
Fax
Publications
Bulletin boards
Audio-/videotapes
Hot lines
Computer conference
Voice mail
Teleconference
Videoconference
Exhibit 10.2 provides a comparison of the various communication methods.

9. Nonverbal Communication
Communication that is transmitted without words
Sounds
Images
Situational behaviours
Clothing and physical surroundings
Body language: gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements that convey meaning
Verbal intonation (paralinguistics): emphasis that a speaker gives to certain words or phrases that conveys meaning
Nonverbal Communication is communication transmitted without words.
Sounds with specific meanings or warnings
Images that control or encourage behaviours
Situational behaviours that convey meanings
Clothing and physical surroundings that imply status
The best-known types of nonverbal communication are body language and verbal intonation.
a. Body language refers to gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements that convey meaning. Keep in mind that the message that is transmitted through body language may be quite different than the verbal message. This “nonspoken” language is most often more accurate than what is being said.
b. Verbal intonation refers to the emphasis someone gives to words or phrases that convey meaning.

10. Interpersonal Communication Barriers
Filtering
National Culture
Emotions
Language
Interpersonal Communication
Information Overload
In addition to the general distortions identified in the communication process, managers face other barriers to effective communication as this diagram illustrates.
Selective
Perception
Defensiveness

11. Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication
Filtering
The deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favourable to the receiver
Emotions
Disregarding rational and objective thinking processes and substituting emotional judgments when interpreting messages
Information Overload
Being confronted with a quantity of information that exceeds an individual’s capacity to process it
1. Filtering is the deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favourable to the receiver.
a. As information is communicated up through the organizational levels, it’s condensed and synthesized, and those doing the condensing filter communication through their personal interests and perceptions of what is important.
b. The more that organizational cultural rewards emphasize style and appearance, the more that managers will be motivated to filter communications in their favour.
2. Emotions influence how a receiver interprets a message when it is received. It’s best to avoid reacting to a message when the receiver is upset because he/she is not likely to be thinking clearly
3. Information overload happens when the information we have to work with exceeds our processing—such as 600 waiting messages in the in box.
a. Receivers tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information when they have too much information.
b. Or, receivers may put off further processing until the overload situation is over—still ineffective communication.

12. Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication (cont’d)
Selective Perception
Individuals interpret “reality” based on their own needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics
Defensiveness
When threatened, reacting in a way that reduces the ability to achieve mutual understanding
4. Selective Perception––people don’t see reality; people interpret what they perceive and call it “reality.” As a result, the reality that people construct is based on individual needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.
5. Defensiveness—engaging in behaviours such as verbally attacking others, making sarcastic remarks, being overly judgmental, and questioning others’ motives—happens when people feel that they’re being threatened.

13. Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication (cont’d)
Language
The different meanings of and specialized ways (jargon) in which senders use words can cause receivers to misinterpret their messages
National Culture
Culture influences the form, formality, openness, patterns, and use of information in communications
6. Language—words mean different things to different people.
a. Age, education, and cultural background can influence language use and definition given to words.
b. Jargon is specialized terminology or technical language that members of a group use to communicate among themselves.
7. National culture can affect the way a manager chooses to communicate.

14. Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communications
Use Feedback
Simplify Language
Listen Actively
Constrain Emotions
Watch Nonverbal Cues
1. Use feedback. This feedback can be verbal or nonverbal.
2. Simplify language.
3. Listen actively.
a. Listening is an active search for meaning, whereas hearing is passive.
b. Active listening is listening for full meaning without making premature judgments or interpretations, and demands total concentration.
c. Active listening is enhanced by developing empathy with the sender—placing yourself in the sender’s position.
d. Exhibit 10.3 lists other specific behaviours that active listeners demonstrate.
4. Constrain emotions. The simplest answer is for a manager to refrain from communicating until he/she has regained composure.
5. Watch nonverbal cues—actions speak louder than words.

15. Types of Organizational Communication
Formal Communication
Communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one’s job
Informal Communication
Communication that is not defined by the organization’s hierarchy
Permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction
Can improve an organization’s performance by creating faster and more effective channels of communication
1. Formal communication refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one’s job.
2. Informal communication is organizational communication that is not defined by the organization’s structural hierarchy.
a. Informal communication systems permit employees to satisfy their need for social interaction.
b. Informal communication systems can improve an organization’s performance by creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient, channels of communication.

16. Direction of Communication Flow
Downward
Communications that flow from managers to employees to inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees
Upward
Communications that flow from employees up to managers to keep them aware of employee needs and how things can be improved to create a climate of trust and respect
1. Downward communication—flows from a manager to employees and is used to inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees
2. Upward communication—flows from employees to managers
a. Upward communication can be used in order to keep managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, their co-workers, and the organization in general.
b. The organizational culture influences the extent of upward communication. A climate of trust, respect, and participative decision making will encourage considerable upward communication. A highly mechanistic and authoritarian environment will severely limit upward communication in both style and content.

17. Direction of Communication Flow (cont’d)
Lateral (Horizontal) Communication
Communication that takes place among employees on the same level in the organization to save time and facilitate coordination
Diagonal Communication
Communication that cuts across both work areas and organizational levels in the interest of efficiency and speed
3. Lateral communication—takes place among employees on the same organizational level
4. Diagonal communication—communication that cuts across both work areas and organizational levels
a. The increased use of facilitates diagonal communication.
b. Diagonal communication has the potential to create problems if employees don’t keep their managers informed.

18. Types of Communication Networks
Chain Network
Communication flows according to the formal chain of command, both upward and downward
Wheel Network
All communication flows in and out through the group leader (hub) to others in the group
All-Channel Network
Communication flows freely among all members of the work team
Exhibit 10.4 illustrates three common communication networks:
a. The chain network represents communication flowing according to the formal chain of command, both downward and upward.
b. The wheel network represents communication flowing between a clearly identifiable and strong leader and others in a work group or team. The leader serves as the hub through which all communication passes.
c. The all-channel network represents communication flowing freely among all members of a work team.

19. Three Common Organizational Communication Networks and How They Rate on Effectiveness Criteria
Chain
Moderate
High
Speed
Accuracy
Emergence of leader
Member satisfaction
Criteria
Fast
Low
None
Wheel
All-Channel
Exhibit 10.4 illustrates three common communication networks.

20. The Grapevine
An informal organizational communication network that is active in almost every organization
Provides a channel for issues not suitable for formal communication channels
The impact of information passed along the grapevine can be countered by open and honest communication with employees
The grapevine is the informal organizational communication network.
a. The grapevine is active in almost every organization. One survey reported that 75% of employees hear about matters first through rumours on the grapevine.
b. The grapevine can act as both a filter and a feedback mechanism.

21. Information Technology
Benefits of Information Technology (IT)
Increased ability to monitor individual and team performance
Better decision making based on more complete information
More collaboration and sharing of information
Greater accessibility to co-workers

22. Information Technology (cont’d)
Networked Computer Systems
Linking individual computers to create an organizational network for communication and information sharing
Instant messaging
Voic and fax
Electronic data exchange (EDI)
Teleconferencing and videoconferencing
Intranets and extranets
How Technology Affects Managerial Communication.
Two developments in information technology seem to be having the most significant impact on current managerial communication: networked computer systems and wireless capabilities.
1. Networked computer systems are computers linked together through compatible hardware and software, creating an organizational network.
a. is the instantaneous transmission of written messages on computers that are linked together. It is fast and cheap and can be used to send the same message to numerous people at the same time.
b. Instant messaging (IM) is interactive real-time communication that takes place among computer users who are logged onto the computer network at the same time.
c. Voic and fax. Voic systems digitize spoken messages, transmit them over the network, and store the messages on disk for the receiver to retrieve
later. Fax machines allow the transmission of documents containing both text and graphics over ordinary telephone lines. The increasing use of voic and e- mail in companies large and small has led to some ethical concerns as well. These forms of communication are not necessarily private, and therefore the employer has access to them.
d. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a way for organizations to exchange standard business transaction documents, such as invoices or purchase orders, using direct computer-to-computer networks.
e. Teleconferencing and videoconferencing allow a group of people to confer over distances. Teleconferencing uses telephone or group communications software. Videoconferencing involves teleconferencing members to see each other over a video screen.
g. Intranet and extranets are systems that facilitate organizational communication. Intranets are networks that use Internet technology and are accessible only by organizational employees. Extranet systems allow authorized users inside the organization to communicate with certain outsiders such as customers and vendors.

23. Tips for Sending E-mails
Always use the subject line.
Be careful using emoticons and acronyms for business communication.
Write clearly and briefly.
Copy s to others only if they really need the information.
Sleep on angry s before sending.

24. Information Technology (cont’d)
Types of Network Systems
Intranet
An internal network that uses Internet technology and is accessible only to employees
Extranet
An internal network that uses Internet technology and allows authorized users inside the organization to communicate with certain outsiders, such as customers and vendors
Wireless capabilities
Wireless Capabilities. Wireless communication depends on signals sent through air or space without any physical connection, using things such as microwave signals, satellites, radio waves and radio antennas, or infrared light rays.