1. Learning: Principles and Applications

2. Learning
A relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency that results from experience
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning (observational learning)

3. Classical Conditioning

4. Classical Conditioning
=A learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Discovered by Pavlov

5. Stimulus and Response
Neutral stimulus- a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus (US)- an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training
Example- Food
Unconditioned response (UR)- an organism’s automatic/natural reaction to a stimulus

6. Stimulus and Response with Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with (occurred just before) an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)- the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus

7. Pavlov’s Experiment

8. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition- getting used to the pairing of the CS and US, occurs gradually
Presenting CS as close as possible to US is most effective

9. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Generalization- responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli
Discrimination- the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli
Circle versus oval

10. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Extinction- the gradual disappearance of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
Not completely unlearned→ spontaneous recovery may occur but will not be as strong
Example- car accident

11. Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior
Little Albert experiment
Food creates stronger CR even if it was not the problem
US= loud noise
Helps to avoid danger
UR= fear
-What is a bad habit or fear you would like to get rid of? How could you use classical conditioning to get rid of it?
CS= rat
CR=fear
Can trigger memories/emotions
Taste aversions

12. Operant Conditioning

13. Operant Conditioning
=learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence
Looks at how voluntary behavior is affected by its consequences
B.F. Skinner

14. Reinforcement
=stimulus or event that follows a response and INCREASES the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Examples- social approval, money, extra privileges

15. Reinforcement- Positive vs. Negative
Positive- something is GIVEN that increases the behavior
Example- treat when a dog shakes hands
Negative- something is TAKEN AWAY that increases the behavior
Beeping when you put on your car seatbelt

16. Reinforcement- Primary vs. Secondary
Primary reinforcer- stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
Secondary reinforcer- stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer

17. Schedules of Reinforcement
Timing and frequency of reinforcement matters
Continuous (reinforced every time) or *partial/intermittent (every now and then)
Based on number of correct responses or amount of time that passes before reinforcement is given
Also based on fixed (predictable) or variable (unpredictable) schedule

18. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed ratio- a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained
Every fourth answer, paid per page
Variable ratio- an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained
Slot machines

19. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed interval- a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement
Studying for a test right before, followed by not studying
Variable interval- changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement
Trying to call a friend

21. Ratio Interval Fixed schedules Variable schedules
Fixed Ratio (reinforcement after a fixed number of responses)
Being paid for every 10 pizzas made
Being ejected from a basketball game after five fouls
Fixed Interval (reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed)
Cramming for an exam
Picking up your check from your part-time job
Variable schedules
Variable Ratio (reinforcement after varying number of responses)
Playing a slot machine
Sales commissions
Variable Interval (reinforcement of first response after varying amounts of time)
Surprise (pop) quizzes in class
Dialing a friend on the phone and them not picking up

22. Shaping and Chaining
Shaping- technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring even-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward
Tricks with animals
Response chain- learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing a signal for the next
3 chains used for swimming- arm-stroking, breathing, leg-kicking

23. Aversive Control
Aversive control- process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
Negative reinforcement- INCREASING the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
Most obvious- punishment- DECREASES the behavior
Many disadvantages of punishment- anger, fear, new bad behavior, learning to avoid the person delivering the consequences
Does not always get rid of behavior- just moves it

24. Operant Conditioning POSITIVE (gives something)
NEGATIVE (takes something away)
REINFORCEMENT (increases the behavior)
Gives something to increase the behavior
-treat for dog rolling over
-money for good grades
-pressing button multiple times for crosswalk
Takes something away to increase the behavior
-takes away the beeping noise to increase putting on a seat belt
-no dessert for not eating veggies
PUNISHMENT (decreases the behavior)
Gives something to decrease the behavior
-dog hit on the nose for barking
-grounded for failing a class
Takes something away to decrease the behavior
-take away attention if dog bites
-baby cries for toy, mom ignores crying

25. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Always a specific stimulus (US) that elicits the desired response
US does not depend upon learner’s response
Environment elicits response from learner
No identifiable stimulus; learner must first respond, then behavior is reinforced
Reinforcement depends upon learner’s behavior
Learner actively operates on its environment

26. Social Learning

27. Social Learning
=process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Bandura’s experiment with the Bobo doll
Children played aggressively with the Bobo doll after watching an adult do so

28. Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning- form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation

29. Cognitive Learning continued
Cognitive map- a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events
Latent learning- alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior
Example- Remembering a building in a part of town you’re unfamiliar with

30. Cognitive Learning continued
Learned helplessness- condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable
Three elements- stability, globality, internality
Can be major contributor for depression

31. Modeling
Modeling- learning by imitation others; copying behavior; observation and imitation
3 effects:
Behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing
Imitation/observational learning of new behavior
Disinhibition- watching someone else engage in threatening activity may help phobia

32. Behavior Modification
=systematic application of learning principles (classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning) to change people’s actions and feelings
Token economy- conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards
Self-control programs- people set up their own system of rewards and punishments to shape thoughts and actions
Example- study habits- rewards for finishing sections, moving every time you’re bored so there are no negative feelings

33. Tuesday
How can you improve your study habits through conditioning?

34. Wednesday
Use the concept of operant conditioning to predict and list some problems that could arise from applying the theory to humans. Consider social, educational, and political arenas.
Joseph Stalin tried to control the behavior of others to advance his own ideas during his dictatorship in the former Soviet Union (mid-1920s-1953). Consider the following:
-How could the ability to control learning using the concept of operant conditioning be abused?
-How might an individual’s freedom of choice be influenced?
-How did Stalin use operant conditioning to ensure the outcome of given courses of action, such as obeying laws or paying taxes?

35. Wednesday- Reverse Alphabet
How did your results vary from trial to trial?
Is there a noticeable trend in your results? If so, describe it.
Once the skill was learned, were you able to sustain your results?
What behaviors did you observe in the first few trials?
Why did you improve as the trials went on?

36. EXTRA TOPICS
List five examples of classical conditioning in everyday life.
Exchange the lists and identify the US, CS, UR, and CR for each example

37. EXTRA TOPICS Each group will be assigned a schedule of reinforcement
-Fixed Ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval
You have 5 minutes to come up with as many examples as possible for your schedule

38. EXTRA TOPICS
Skinner said: “Everything we do and are is determined by our history of rewards and punishments.”
Evaluate this generalization and explain what you think of it

39. EXTRA TOPICS Draw a map of the following: -Basha High School
-The library
-Santan Village
Compare.

40. EXTRA TOPICS
Create a token economy for the classroom to improve student behavior. Come to an agreement on the specific behaviors that would be rewarded, the tokens that would be used, the real rewards for which the tokens could be exchanged, and a way to make the system financially self-sustaining.
We will implement this system for a week.
Discuss the changes you observed in students’ behavior as a result of the token economy. Was it successful? Do you think it could be successful if used throughout the school?

41. EXTRA TOPICS
Devise a plan of behavior modification (such as teaching your dog not to bark indoors or stopping your friend from knuckle cracking) by applying learning principles.
Apply the plan.
Was it successful?

42. EXTRA TOPICS
How might a therapist help cigarette smokers quit smoking using classical conditioning techniques? Using operant conditioning techniques? Using social learning techniques?