1. Scientific Revolution
Presentation created by Robert Martinez
Primary Content Source: Prentice Hall World History
Images as cited.

2. Until the mid-1500s, European scholars accepted the theory of the ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy. Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe. This theory matched the teachings of the Church. In the 1500s and 1600s, some startling discoveries radically changed the way Europeans viewed the physical world.
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3. In 1543, Polish Nicolas Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. In it, he proposed a heliocentric, or sun-centered, model of the universe. The sun, he said, stood at the center of the universe. The Earth was just one of several planets that revolved around the sun.
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4. Most experts rejected this radical theory
Most experts rejected this radical theory. In Europe at the time, all scientific knowledge and many religious teachings were based on the arguments developed by classical thinkers. If Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets were wrong, they believed, then the whole system of human knowledge might be called into question.
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5. But in the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported Copernicus’s theory. Brahe set up an astronomical observatory. Every night for years, he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the heavenly bodies.
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6. After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the brilliant German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. His calculations supported Copernicus’s heliocentric view.
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7. At the same time, however, they showed that each planet did not move in a perfect circle, as both Ptolemy and Copernicus believed, but in an oval-shaped orbit called an eclipse.
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8. Scientists built on the foundations of Copernicus and Kepler
Scientists built on the foundations of Copernicus and Kepler. In Italy, Galileo Galilei assembled an astronomical telescope. Galileo had observed the four moons of Jupiter moving slowly around that planet. Like Copernicus he realized that the Earth moved around the sun.
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9. Other scholars attacked Galileo because his observations contradicted ancient views about the world. The Church condemned him because his ideas challenged the Christian teaching that the heavens were fixed, unmoving, and perfect.
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10. In 1633, Galileo was tried before the Inquisition
In 1633, Galileo was tried before the Inquisition. Threatened with death unless he withdrew his “heresies,” Galileo agreed to state publicly that the Earth stood motionless at the center of the universe. “Nevertheless,” he is said to have muttered as he left the court, “it does move.”
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11. Despite the opposition of religious authorities, by the early 1600s a new approach to science had emerged. Unlike most earlier approaches, it did not rely on authorities like Aristotle or Ptolemy or even the Bible. It depended instead upon observation and experimentation.
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12. The new approach to science required scientists to collect and accurately measure data. To explain the data, scientists used reasoning to propose a logical hypothesis, or possible explanation. They then tested the hypothesis with further observation or experimentation.
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13. Complex mathematical calculations were used to convert the observations and experiments into scientific laws. After reaching a conclusion, scientists repeated their work at least one, and usually many times, to confirm their findings. This step-by-step process of discovery became known as the scientific method.
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14. The new scientific method was really a revolution in thought
The new scientific method was really a revolution in thought. Two giants of this revolution were the Englishman Francis Bacon and the Frenchman Rene Descartes. Each devoted himself to the problem of knowledge.
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15. Both Bacon and Descartes rejected Aristotle’s scientific assumptions
Both Bacon and Descartes rejected Aristotle’s scientific assumptions. They challenged the scholarly traditions of the medieval universities that sought to make the physical world fit in with the teachings of the Church. Both argued that truth is not known at the beginning of inquiry but at the end, after a long process of investigation.
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16. Bacon and Descartes differed in their methods
Bacon and Descartes differed in their methods. Bacon stressed experimentation and observation. He wanted science to make life better for people by leading to practical technologies.
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17. Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding
Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding. In his Discourse on Method, he explains how he decided to discard all traditional authorities and search for provable knowledge. Left only with doubt, he concluded that the doubter had to exist and made his famous statement, “I think, therefore I am.”
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18. By age 24,Isaac Newton formed a brilliant theory to explain why the planets moved as they did. According to one story, Newton saw an apple fall from a tree. He wondered whether the force that pulled that apple to the Earth might not also control the movements of the planets.
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19. In the next 20 years, Newton perfected his theory
In the next 20 years, Newton perfected his theory. Using mathematics, he showed that a single force keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun. He called this force gravity.
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20. In 1687, Newton published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, explaining the law of gravity and other workings of the universe. Nature, argued Newton, follows uniform laws. All motion in the universe can be measured and described mathematically.
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21. To many, Newton’s work seemed to link physics and astronomy, to bind the new science as gravity itself held the universe together. An English poet caught the spirit of what would later be called the Newtonian revolution: “Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in night, God said, Let Newton be! and all was light.” - Alexander Pope, Epitaphs

22. For over 200 years, Newton’s laws held fast
For over 200 years, Newton’s laws held fast. In the early 1900s, startling new theories of the universe called some of Newton’s ideas into question. Yet Newton’s laws of motion and mechanics continue to have many practical uses. Newton helped develop an important new branch of mathematics – calculus.
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23. Chemistry slowly freed itself from the magical notions of medieval alchemists, who had believed it was possible to transform ordinary metals into gold.
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24. In the 1600s, Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds. He also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases. Boyle’s work opened the way to modern chemical analysis of the composition of matter.
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25. During the Renaissance, artists and physicians made new efforts to study the human body. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body, the first accurate and detailed study of human anatomy.
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26. A French physician, Ambrose Pare, developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection. He also developed a technique for closing wounds with stitches.
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27. In the early 1600s, William Harvey, an English scholar, described the circulation of the blood for the first time. He showed how the heart serves as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries.
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28. Later in the century, the Dutch inventor Anthony van Leeuwenhoek perfected the microscope and became the first human to see cells and microorganisms. These pioneering scientists opened the way for further advances.
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29. Thinkers like Bacon, Descartes, and Newton applied the scientific method to the pursuit of knowledge. Their work encouraged others to search for scientific laws governing the universe. Such ideas opened the way to the Enlightenment of the 1700s.
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