1. We will understand rhetorical appeals and fallacies
We will understand rhetorical appeals and fallacies. AP Language and Composition
29 August 2016

2. Rhetoric Rhetorical Appeal
Rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing, and the art of persuasion. It aims to improve the capability of writers or speakers to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations.
Rhetorical Appeal
The rhetorical appeals are the three elements to the art of persuasion as defined by Aristotle. The appeals are, in essence, heuristics for understanding and analyzing argument.

3. Ethos (Appeal to Authority)
From ἦθος, Greek for ‘nature, disposition’
Ethos stems from the source’s credibility or the speaker's authority
It is how well the presenter convinces the audience that he or she is qualified to present on the particular subject. It can be done in various ways, for instance:
by being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a professor or a company executive.
by demonstrating mastery of the language particular to the field.
by being endorsed or introduced by another established notable figure

4. Pathos (Appeal to Emotions)
From πάθος, Greek for ‘experience, suffering’
Pathos is an appeal to the audience’s emotions.
Pathos is seldom used alone. It is most effective when the author or speaker demonstrates agreement with an underlying value of the reader or listener.
Pathos may be used to appeal to:
Fear
Imagination
Hope

5. Logos (Appeal to Logic)
From λόγος, Greek for ‘word, speech’
Logos is an appeal to the audience’s sensibility.
Logos is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's claims or thesis. Logos can be used to enhance ethos, as the information makes the speaker appear knowledgeable.
Logos can:
confuse the audience with data.
mislead the audience due to inaccuracies.
be intentionally falsified, or miscontextualized.

6. Appeals in the Wild Logos Medicine Debate Philosophy Education
Politics
Advertising
Ethos
Pharmaceuticals
Dietary Supplements
Medicine
Education
Politics
Advertising
Pathos
Charity Campaigns
Social Issues
Civil Issues
Film
Politics
Advertising

7. Fallacy A failure in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.
A fallacy is the use of poor, or invalid, reasoning for the construction of an argument.
Arguments which appear to be correct but are not are often colloquially referred to as fallacies. This is erroneous; they are simply wrong. Do not confuse the two.
If an argument is fallacious, it does not necessarily mean the conclusion is false.

8. Validity and Soundness
A valid argument is one in which the premises logically guarantee the conclusion.
Either Tom owns a Chevy or he owns a Ford. Tom does not own a Ford. Therefore, Tom owns a Chevy.
Validity is not an indicator truth. For instance, the following argument is valid, but is not true.
All toasters are made of gold. All things made of gold are time-machines. Therefore, all toasters are time-machines.

9. Validity and Soundness
A sound argument is one that is not only valid, but one in which the premises are actually true as well.
No felons are eligible voters. Some professional athletes are felons. Therefore, some professional athletes are not eligible voters.
Here, not only do the premises provide support for the conclusion, but the premises are actually true; therefore, the conclusion is true as well.

10. Formal and Informal fallacies
Fallacies are commonly divided into two categories:
Formal fallacies can neatly be expressed in standard system of logic. Arguments with a formal fallacy are called invalid.
Informal fallacies originate from an error in reasoning rather than an improper logical form. Arguments with informal fallacies are called unsound.
Arguments committing informal fallacies may still be formally valid.

11. Argumentum ad ignorantiam - assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa.
Vikings had mp3 players.
Argumentum ad hominem - the evasion of the actual topic by directing an attack at your opponent.
You would understand this if you weren’t an idiot.
Petitio principii - (begging the question) providing what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as a premise.
Paranormal activity is real because I have experienced what I can only describe as paranormal activity.

12. Post hoc ergo propter hoc - claiming that because one event followed another, the second event was caused by the first.
The rooster crows before sunrise, therefore the crowing rooster causes the sun to rise.
Non Sequitur - When the conclusion does not follow from the premises; or, when what is presented as evidence is irrelevant to the conclusion.
The school my child goes to is big. The classroom must be big.
Logical Fallacies

13. False dichotomy - two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more
You are either with me or you are against me.
Straw man - false representation of an opponent's argument
He claims that children shouldn’t play on busy streets. Perhaps we should just lock children up all day to keep him satisfied.
Red herring - presenting an irrelevant or false topic in an attempt to divert attention from the original issue
We need more revenue to support the programs that we have. Children are our future. Let’s support children.
Logical Fallacies

14. Slippery Slope - Claiming that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant effect.
If he’s forced to take out his earring, the next thing you know all the kids will be wearing uniforms and shouting “Heil Principal.”
No true Scotsman - Making a general statement, and, when met with contradictory evidence, subsequently redefining the terms of the original statement to make it true.
Person A: No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.
Person B: But my uncle Angus likes sugar with his porridge.
Person A: Ah yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge.
Logical Fallacies

15. I Will
Identify fallacious arguments in popular culture, and provide VALID, SOUND arguments to replace weak rhetoric.