1. Regulating Services in the River Loddon catchment
J.L. Neumann | T.D. Breeze | S. Mortimer | S. Potts | G.H. Griffiths | A. Bailey | H.L. Cloke | A. Verhoef | G.Parker | J. Clark
Best for: Climate regulation
The map below shows the value of carbon storage provided by different types of soils and vegetation.
Best for: Below ground rainwater storage
The map below shows the value of below ground rainwater storage provided by different soil types.
Best for: Water purification
The map below shows the value of water purification provided by different soil types.
Best for: Pollination
The map below shows the value of pollination by bees provided by different crops and landcover types.
Soils and vegetation store carbon. The average amount of carbon stored varies between different types of soil and vegetation 1. Carbon storage is greatest in peat and lowest in sandy soils. Woodland habitats (broadleaf, mixed, conifer and scrub) also have potential to store a greater amount of carbon in comparison with other landcover types. Urban areas, tilled land and managed grasslands have lower carbon storage value.
Using soil type 2 and landcover data 3 the value of carbon storage provided within the Loddon catchment was calculated. The ecosystem service provided is carbon storage, and the final ecosystem good is an equitable climate.
Below ground rainwater storage is the amount of excess water that can be temporarily stored in soil. Soils with a high groundwater level (i.e. within floodplains) and man-made surfaces with lower permeability (i.e. within urban areas) have reduced capacity to store excess water.
In the Loddon catchment, the ability of different soil types to retain water was estimated from soil texture and depth 4 using a soil porosity calculation 5 for each soil type present 2. The ecosystem service provided is soil water storage, and the final ecosystem good is flood control.
Wetland soils act as natural filters. They are able to retain pollutants like metals, sediments and nutrients etc., and in some cases, can also remove pollutants such as nitrate from soil and water by converting it to a gas. Areas with naturally high groundwater, like peatlands and some floodplain soils, perform these functions all year round. Other areas only provide this service during periods with high groundwater.
Using data on soil type 2 and floodplain extent 6, areas with high water purification value in the Loddon catchment were identified. The ecosystem service provided is water purification, and the final ecosystem good is pollution control.
Areas of mixed woodland and heathland landcover are beneficial for bee populations 7, 8. Many crops are reliant on bees for pollination such as field beans (25 % of their yield), oilseed rape (25 %), soft fruits (45 %) and orchards (65 %) 9.
An Index of pollination services was created for the Loddon catchment (at a 2 x 2 km scale) using data about the type and amount of crops produced 10 and the landcover types present 7. Squares with high pollination values reflect areas where the type and amount of crops are highly dependent on bees AND where landcover is most suitable for bees. The ecosystem service provided is pollination, which affects the final ecosystem goods of food and energy.
1. Milne, R. & Brown, T.A. (1997) Carbon in the vegetation and soils of Great Britain. Journal of Environmental Management. 49, Cranfield University. (2004) The National Soil Map and Soil Classification. Data obtained under non-commercial licence NERC. (2011) Landcover Map Data obtained under non-commercial licence. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH), Oxfordshire. 4. Avery, B.W. (1980) Soil Classification for England and Wales (Higher Categories). Soil Survey Technical Monograph No. 14. Harpenden. 5. Cosby B.J. et al. (1984) A statistical exploration of the relationship of soil moisture characteristics to the physical properties of soils. Water Resources Research. 20,
6. Environment Agency. (2014) Flood Alert Areas. Data obtained under Open Government Licence (OGL). 7. European Environment Agency (2006) Corine Landcover Map Data obtained under non-commercial licence from CEH, Oxfordshire. 8. Vogiatzakis, I.N. et al. (2014) Rapid assessment of historic, current and future habitat quality for biodiversity around UK Natura 2000 sites. Environmental Conservation. doi: /S Gallai, N. et al. (2009) Economic Valuation of the Vulnerability of World Agriculture Confronted with Pollinator Decline. Ecological Economics Defra. (2010) Agricultural Census Data (England 2 x 2 km). Data obtained under academic/research licence from Edina Agcensus.

2. Provisioning Services in the River Loddon catchment
J.L. Neumann | T.D. Breeze | S. Mortimer | S. Potts | G.H. Griffiths | A. Bailey | H.L. Cloke | A. Verhoef | G.Parker | J. Clark
Best for: Food and energy
The map below shows the value of crops and livestock provided by different agricultural practices.
Best for: Timber
The map below shows the value of timber stocks provided by
different types of woodland.
Best for: Biodiversity
The map below shows the value of bird biodiversity provided by different landcover types.
Crops and livestock are largely used for food production, but also energy (e.g. biofuels). The total monetary value of crop and/or livestock production on a farm depends on a range of physical and human factors which include, but are not limited to: Environmental conditions (topography, climate, soil type, surrounding land-use) Uptake of agri-environment schemes (including stewardship or organic methods) Preference of the farmer regarding crop type / livestock choice.
Approximately 55 % of the Loddon catchment is used for agriculture 1. Using data about the type and amount of crops and livestock produced within the Loddon catchment (at a 2 x 2 km scale) 2, areas with high and low agricultural production value were identified. The ecosystem service provided is crop and livestock production, and the final ecosystem goods include food production and energy.
Mature woodland habitats (including coppices) contain trees which are potentially suitable for timber production. Coniferous plantations which contain spruce and pine species provide the greatest timber stock value. The value of timber in woodlands with mixed or broadleaf composition is generally lower.
The age of trees which are considered to be of harvestable age is 80 years. Based on forestry data 3 which details the composition and size of woodland habitats within the Loddon catchment, the potential value of timber stocks (as the proportion of trees of harvestable age within each woodland) was calculated 4, 5. The ecosystem service provided is timber, and the final ecosystem goods are energy and fibre.
Biodiversity refers to the type and number of different species which can be supported by an area (i.e. within a habitat or landcover type). Birds provide a good representation of ‘total wild species biodiversity’. Direct human benefits from birds are aesthetic and inspirational (i.e. bird watching), but there is a lot of evidence that wild species biodiversity underpins all aspects of ecosystem services (e.g. pollination, nutrient cycling, soil health).
Based on landcover data 6 within the Loddon catchment, expert opinion was used to identify areas where the landcover was deemed most suitable for total bird biodiversity 7. High value landcover types include mixed woodland, heathland and deciduous woodland. Lower value landcover types are urban areas. The ecosystem service provided is biodiversity, and the final direct ecosystem goods are aesthetic and inspirational appreciation.
1. NERC. (2011) Landcover Map Data obtained under non-commercial licence. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH), Oxfordshire. 2. Defra. (2010) Agricultural Census Data (England 2 x 2 km). Data obtained under academic/research licence from Edina Agcensus Forestry Commission. (2013) National Forest Inventory Great Britain Forestry Commission. Data obtained under OS Open Data terms. 4. Forestry Commission (2013) NFI preliminary estimates of quantities of broadleaved species in British woodlands, with special focus on ash. National Forest Inventory Preliminary Report. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh.
5. Forestry Commission. (2011) Standing timber volume for coniferous trees in Britain. National Forestry Inventory Report. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. 6. European Environment Agency (2006) Corine Landcover Map Data obtained under non-commercial licence from CEH, Oxfordshire. 7. Vogiatzakis, I.N. et al. (2014) Rapid assessment of historic, current and future habitat quality for biodiversity around UK Natura 2000 sites. Environmental Conservation. doi: /S