1. Modals of probability
And their other uses

2. Modals Each modal has at least two meanings
I must go to school. - obligation
Her car is not here. She must be out. - probability
All modals express degrees of certainty, probability or possibility

3. In the order of certainty:
will, won’t - assumption based on our knowledge
must, can’t - logical conclusion of a situation
may, might, could - possibility

4. Present: Modal + infinitive
The light is on in the house. They must be at home.
Their car is not here. They can't be at home.
Their car is not here. They could / may / might be out.

5. Present: modal + be + -ing form (continuous infinitive)
She is not at home. She may be studying at the library.
Everyone is asleep. He can't be listening to music now.
This is not real. You must be joking!

6. Past: modal + have + past participle (perfect infinitive)
What was that noise outside? That ’ll have been my cat.
The lights are off. The family must have gone out.
My wallet is not here. I may have lost it.
She studied very hard. She can't have failed the exam.

7. Past: modal + have + been + -ing form
She was not at home. She may have been studying at the library.
He can't have been listening to music while everyone was asleep.
I didn’t believe a word you said. You must have been joking!

8. Would have thought
Is commonly used to express an assumption (pretpostavka)
I’d have thought they’d me. What’s happened?
You would have thought he’d help his friends.

9. Other uses of modals Should have done
Advice or criticism about a past event
You should have told me the truth.
I shouldn’t have laughed at her.

10. Other uses of modals Could have done Unrealized past ability
I could have taken my car to work. I preferred to cycle.
A past possibility that didn’t happen
Why did he swim so far? He could have drowned!
To criticize people for not doing things
You could have told me that Sue and Jim had split up!

11. Other uses of modals Might have done Might have known/guessed that…
Criticism
You might have lent me the money! You knew I needed it!
Might have known/guessed that…
A typical action of someone or something
I might have guessed that Samantha would forget our date.

12. Other uses of modals Needn’t have done
An action that was done, but wasn’t necessary
You needn’t have repaired the car. I’m buying a new one.
(You did repair it, but this wasn’t necessary.)