1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Leadership Fundamentals
Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes
Chapter 11

3. Learning Objectives Define the term leadership
Describe why managers prefer the situational leadership theory
Discuss whether leaders are really needed in work settings
Compare situational factors used in discussions of the contingency and path-goal approaches to leadership
Identify assumptions made about followers of the path-goal and the leader-member exchange theories

4. What is Leadership?
Leaders influence others to do what they might not do otherwise
They are agents of change
They encourage goal accomplishment
Their acts influence others more than the acts of others influence them

5. Leadership Effectiveness
Effective leaders may have to deal with the goals of…
Individuals, groups, the organization
Effectiveness is typically measured by goal accomplishment
Acceptance of a leader’s directives rests largely on…
Followers’ expectations that a favorable response leads to an attractive outcome

6. Framework for Studying Leadership
Leader’s Behavior
Leader’s Traits
Task-oriented
Person-oriented
Initiating structure
Consideration
Transactional
Transformational
Effective Results
Abilities
Personality
Motivation
Production
Quality
Efficiency
Flexibility
Satisfaction
Competitiveness
Development
Survival
Situational Variables
Followers’ needs
Task structure
Position power
Leader-follower trust
Group readiness

7. Trait Theory of Leadership
Attempts to identify characteristics linked to leadership success
Physical attributes
Mental attributes
Personality

8. Effective Leader Traits
Personality
Alertness
Energy level
Stress tolerance
Self-confidence
Emotional maturity
Integrity
Motivation
Socialized power orientation
Strong need for achievement
Weak need for affiliation
Persuasiveness
Ability
Interpersonal skill
Cognitive skill
Technical skill
Supervisory ability

9. Behaviors of Effective Leaders
Leadership behavior is studied by analyzing…
What leaders do in relation to accomplishing the task (job centered)
What they do to maintain the efforts of the people doing the task (employee centered)

10. Behaviors of Effective Leaders
Effectiveness criteria
Productivity per work hour, or similar measures
Organization members’ job satisfaction
Turnover, absenteeism, grievance rates
Costs
Scrap loss
Employee and managerial motivation

11. Behavior Theories The job-centered leader
Focuses on completing the task
Uses close supervision and specified procedures
Relies on coercion, reward, legitimate power to influence behavior and performance

12. Behavior Theories The employee-centered leader
Focuses on the people doing the work
Delegates decision making
Is concerned with subordinates’ advancement, growth, achievement

13. Behavior Theories Initiating structure (job-centered)
Organizes and defines group relationships
Establishes well-defined patterns and channels of communication
Spells out ways to get the job done
Consideration (employee-centered)
Friendship, mutual trust, respect, warmth, and rapport between the leader and followers

14. Behavior Theory Shortcomings
Generally accepted shortcomings
The linkage between leadership and organization performance indicators has not been conclusively resolved
The role of environmental variables in leadership effectiveness is ignored
Situational variables not considered

15. Situational Theories of Leadership
These theories
Suggest that leader effectiveness depends on the fit between personality, task, power, attitudes, and perceptions
Advocate that leaders understand their own behavior, the behavior of their subordinates, and the situation before utilizing a particular leadership style
Require the leader to have diagnostic skills in human behavior

16. Situational Theories: Key Factors
Managers aware of the forces they face can modify their style to cope with them
Forces within managers
Forces in the subordinates
Forces in the situation

17. Contingency Leadership Model
Group performance is dependant on the interaction between
Leadership style
Situational favorableness

18. Contingency Leadership Model
Leader styles
Task-oriented leadership
Relationship-oriented leadership
Situational factors
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power

19. Situation Favorableness
Situational Characteristics
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Situation
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
High High Low Low High High Low Low
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Preferred leadership styles
Task-motivated (Low LPC)
Relationship-motivated (High LPC)
Low
LPC
Very
Favorable
Very
Unfavorable

20. Changing Situations to Fit Leaders
Modify Leader-Member Relations
Spend more (or less) informal time with subordinates
Request particular people for your group
Volunteer to direct difficult or troublesome subordinates
Suggest or affect transfers of particular subordinates into or out of your unit
Raise morale by obtaining positive outcomes for subordinates

21. Changing Situations to Fit Leaders
Modify Task Structure
To work with less structured tasks
Ask the boss to give you new or unusual problems
Bring problems and tasks to your group and ask members to contribute to planning and decision-making
To work with highly structured tasks
Ask for more structured tasks or more detailed instructions
Break jobs into subtasks that can be more highly structured

22. Changing Situations to Fit Leaders
Modify Position Power
To raise your position power
Fully exercise the powers that the organization provides
Channel information through you
To lower your position power
Allow group members to participate in planning and decision-making
Let assistants exercise more power

23. Path-Goal Leadership Model
Leaders are effective because of their positive impact on followers’…
Motivation
Ability to perform
Satisfaction
This model focuses on how the leader influences followers’ perceptions of…
Work goals
Self-development goals
Paths to goal attainment

24. Path-Goal Leadership Model
Specifies four specific leader behaviors
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented

25. Path-Goal Leadership Model
Leader behavior is effective
To the extent that subordinates perceive such behavior as a source of immediate or future satisfaction
Leader behavior is motivational if it
Makes satisfaction of subordinates’ needs contingent on effective performance
Provides the guidance, clarity of direction, and rewards necessary for effective performance

26. Path-Goal Leadership Model
Follower Characteristics
Locus of control Experience Ability
Leader Behavior
Follower
Outcomes
Directive Supportive Participative Achievement oriented
Perceptions Motivation
Satisfaction
Performance
Environmental Factors
Tasks Formal authority
Work group

27. Path-Goal Situational Factors
Contingency variables
Personal characteristics of subordinates
Perceptions of ability
Locus of control
Environmental pressures and demands
The tasks
The formal authority of the organization
The work group

28. Path-Goal Situational Factors
A leader who reduces the uncertainties of the job is a motivator
Increases subordinates’ expectations that effort leads to desirable rewards

29. Situational Leadership Model
Emphasis is on followers and their level of maturity
Leaders must judge followers’ maturity levels, then use appropriate leadership style
Readiness is the ability and willingness of followers to take responsibility for directing their own behavior
Job readiness
Psychological readiness

30. Situational Leadership Model
Hersey and Blanchard developed four leadership styles:
Telling
Selling
Participating
Delegating

31. Situational Leadership Model
Degree of follower’s readiness to assume personal responsibility: R1
Unable
Unwilling R2
Unable
Willing R3
Able
Unwilling R4
Able
Willing S1
Telling:
Instructing &
supervising S2
Selling:
Explaining &
clarifying S3
Participating:
Sharing &
facilitating S4
Delegating:
Coaching &
assisting
Leadership behavior appropriate to the situation

32. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
There is no consistent leader behavior across subordinates
Each relationship has a uniqueness
One-on-one relationships determine subordinates’ behaviors
Subordinates are classified into groups
In-group members
Out-group members

33. Learning Objectives In-Group Members Out-Group Members
Share a common bond and value system
Interact with the leader regularly
Get more challenging assignments and more meaningful rewards
Are more positive about the organization
Have higher job performance and satisfaction
Have less in common with the leader
Have limited interaction with the leader
Receive less challenging work and little positive reinforcement
Become bored
Often quit

34. Comparing Situational Approaches
Model
Leader Qualities
Contingency
Task- or relationship-oriented. The job should be engineered to fit the leader’s style.
Path-Goal
Can increase followers’ effectiveness by applying proper motivational techniques.
Situational Leadership
Must adapt style in terms of task and relationship behavior on the basis of followers.
Leader-Member Exchange
Must be adaptive, because there is no such thing as consistent leader behavior across subordinates

35. Comparing Situational Approaches
Model
Assumptions About Followers
Contingency
Prefer different leadership styles, depending on task structure, leader-member relations, and position power
Path-Goal
Have different needs that must be fulfilled with the help of a leader
Situational Leadership
Maturity (readiness) to take responsibility and ability influence the leadership style that is adopted
Leader-Member Exchange
Categorized as in-groups and out-groups

36. Comparing Situational Approaches
Model
Leader Effectiveness
Contingency
Determined by the interaction of the environment and personality factors
Path-Goal
Effective leaders are those who clarify for followers the paths or behaviors that are best
Situational Leadership
Effective leaders are able to adapt directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating style to fit the followers’ levels of maturity
Leader-Member Exchange
The perceptive leader is able to adapt his/her style to fit followers’ needs