1. Biochemistry =
The study of the molecules of living things and how they react.

2. Periodic Table of Elements

7. The Basics: C = H = O = N = P =
All things are made up of tiny particles called
___atoms____
There are only about 100 different types, called
___elements____
 The most common elements in biology are:
___carbon____
___hydrogen_____
___oxygen____
___nitrogen_____
___phosphorus___
C =
H =
O =
N =
P =

8. Other, Less Common Elements in Living Organisms
Iron (Fe) Sulfur (S) Calcium (Ca) Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl) Magnesium (Mg) Zinc (Zn)
Other, Less Common Elements in Living Organisms

9. The evil Regents Exam writers use the words “organic molecules” when they mean FOOD.
Organic means the molecule contains the elements, ??
_carbon (C)_ and _hydrogen (H).
If something does NOT contain those 2 elements, we say it is
_inorganic_____.
The most abundant (common) inorganic compound in your body (& on the planet) is ??
__water___.

10. Organic Molecules
Don’t confuse the chemistry definition for organic with the one in the grocery store!
Most organic compounds occur naturally in living things and their products—but now we DO make them in chemical laboratories, too!

11. Why are they so large & complex? Carbon’s Bonding Behavior
Outer shell of carbon has 4 electrons; can hold 8, so…
Each carbon atom can form 4 bonds with other atoms by sharing 4 of its electrons!

12. Bonding Arrangements: How Carbon rolls…
Carbon atoms can form chains or rings
Other elements are attached to the carbon backbone

13. Functional Groups
Atoms or clusters of atoms that are covalently bonded to carbon backbone
Give organic compounds their different properties
Hydroxyl group - OH
Amino group - NH2
Carboxyl group - COOH

14. Families of Organic Compounds: The big FOUR?
In this unit, we will study THREE:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
The fourth group includes-
Nucleic Acids
All organisms use these molecules to make their cells and carry out their life processes!

15. Organic compounds are made up of subunits!
Subunits = building blocks = basic units = parts of molecules = monomers
Subunits combine together to make POLYMERS
Polymers are large molecules consisting of chains of many repeating units, called monomers.

16. Carbohydrates: What are they? ________ and ___________
What is their use in the body? ____________
What elements do they contain? ___________
The smallest carbos are called ________ sugars, or ________________.
(mono = ____; saccharide = ____________)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named ______________.

17. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ____________
What elements do they contain? __________
The smallest carbos are called _________ sugars, or ________________.
(mono = ____; saccharide = ________)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _________________.

18. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __________
The smallest carbos are called _________ sugars, or ________________.
(mono = ____; saccharide = ________)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _________________.

19. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __C, H, O_
The smallest carbos are called ________ sugars, or ________________.
(mono = ____; saccharide = ________)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _________________.

20. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __C, H, O_
The smallest carbos are called __simple__ sugars, or ________________.
(mono = ____; saccharide = ________)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _________________.

21. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __C, H, O_
The smallest carbos are called __simple__ sugars, or ___monosaccharides_____.
(mono = ____; saccharide = _______)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _____________.

22. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __C, H, O_
The smallest carbos are called __simple__ sugars, or ___monosaccharides_____.
(mono = __1__; saccharide = __sugar__)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named _____________.

23. Carbohydrates: What are they? __sugars__ and _starches__
What is their use in the body? ___Energy_
What elements do they contain? __C, H, O_
The smallest carbos are called __simple__ sugars, or ___monosaccharides_____.
(mono = __1__; saccharide = __sugar__)
The monosaccharide you need to know is named ____glucose______.

24. Monosaccharides Simplest carbohydrates
Most are sweet tasting, water soluble
Most have 5- or 6-carbon backbone
Glucose (6 C) Fructose (6 C)
Galactose (6 C)
Ribose (5 C) Deoxyribose (5 C)

25. A Monosaccharide: GLUCOSE
Glucose’s chemical formula is ??
__C6H12O6__
Is it organic? How do you know?
_YES____
_It has BOTH C & H!__
The image to the right is a structural diagram of glucose (see next slide).

26. Two Monosaccharides
glucose
fructose
Structural formula

27. What shape would you draw for fructose?
Schematic Diagrams for Monosaccharides
For glucose, draw a hexagon shape with a circle in the top right corner to represent that there is an oxygen there. All of the other corners are carbons. You don’t have to draw the “OH” coming down!
What shape would you draw for fructose?

28. Carbohydrates: Subunits join together to make larger molecules
If you hook 2 simple sugars (2 monosaccharides) together, you get a ??
___Disaccharide____.
 An example of a disaccharide is table sugar, or ??
___sucrose__.

29. Carbohydrates If you hook MANY simple sugars together, you get a ??
____Polysaccharide_________.
An example of a polysaccharide is ??
__starch_____.

30. Carbohydrates
Sketch diagrams of a disaccharide and a polysaccharide:

31. Carbohydrates
How does the body join molecules together and take them apart?
There are 2 simple processes used over and over in the body.
Dehydration synthesis:
Hydrolysis:

32. Dehydration Synthesis
Process to form polymers from subunits
Dehydrate = loss of water
Synthesis = to make more complex
Enzymes remove -OH from one molecule, H from another, form bond between two molecules
Discarded atoms can join to form water

33. enzyme action at functional groups
Dehydration synthesis
enzyme action at functional groups
That’s water!
Fig. 3.4a, p. 37

34. Hydrolysis The opposite reaction of dehydration synthesis
Digests (breaks) polymers into smaller units
Enzymes split molecules into two or more parts
An -OH group and an H atom derived from water are attached at exposed sites

35. enzyme action at functional groups
HYDROLYSIS
enzyme action at functional groups
Fig. 3.4b, p. 37

36. Carbohydrates Dehydration synthesis:
How does the body join molecules together and take them apart?
There are 2 simple processes used over and over in the body.
Dehydration synthesis:
_Removing water to make large (complex) molecules___
Hydrolysis:
_Adding water to break apart (digest) polymers into simpler molecules.__

37. Dehydration Synthesis
Draw a sketch showing the dehydration synthesis of 2 simple sugars into a disaccharide.
H20
How many water molecules got squeezed out, to form the new bond?
_1_

38. Hydrolysis
Draw a sketch showing the hydrolysis of a polysaccharide into several monosaccharides.
2 H20
How many waters did we add?
_2_

39. Quick Review: Carbohydrates
Name a simple sugar.
_glucose____
Name a polysaccharide.
_starch____
What’s table sugar?
_sucrose___
What’s 2 monosaccharides, hooked?
__a disaccharide ____
When the Regents says “organic” they mean:
__FOOD molecules__

40. Quick Review: _Hydrolysis_ _Dehyd. Syn._ _ENERGY_
Which process is digestion?
Which process joins things?
Which process breaks things?
Which process uses water?
What’s the purpose of carbos?
How do you know if something’s organic?
__If the molecule has C & H in it!____

41. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS to make a disaccharide; additional water removal would result in a polysaccharide.

42. Carbohydrates & Plants:

43. Carbohydrates: Plants
Plants use photosynthesis to combine carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to make _________ (the monosaccharide you need to know).
They capture the energy from the sun and it is stored in the _________ of the glucose.
_glucose_
_bonds_

44. Carbohydrates: Plants
Plants either use the glucose for _________ (by doing cellular respiration) or they can store it in chains (a polysaccharide) called _________ (hint: what do we call foods that are made from plants—like spaghetti, bread, or cereal?)
_ENERGY_
_starch_

45. Carbohydrates: Plants
Plants also use their glucose to make their cell wall. It is composed of “sheets” of glucose chains, called _________, making it a very rigid structure! You can probably imagine that with EVERY plant having cellulose around EVERY cell—it’s the most abundant organic compound!
_cellulose_

46. Carbohydrates & Animals:

47. Carbohydrates: Animals
When animals eat plants, the starch is digested (hydrolysis) into individual _________ molecules (yup, that monosaccharide again!)
The animals can either use the glucose for energy (by doing cellular respiration) or they can store it in their liver or muscle cells in long chains called _________ (sometimes referred to as “animal starch”).
_glucose_
_glycogen_

48. Carbohydrates: Animals
Of course, some animals use polysaccharides for structure, too! Arthropods (like insects and crustaceans) have exoskeletons made out of _________. That’s what makes the “crunch” when you step on a beetle or break into your lobster dinner!
_chitin__

49. In summary: Carbohydrates
Examples
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Structure
Food Source
Use in Body

50. Proteins: What types of things are made of protein?
Animal products: meat, eggs, milk
Plant proteins: beans, lentils, nuts, seeds

51. Proteins: Repair & Growth What is their use in the body?
Hair, nails, cartilage, bone, & muscle are all made of protein!
So…What life function???
Repair & Growth
Also proteins have various functional roles:
Some hormones (ex. insulin)
Antibodies (immune system)
Enzymes (speed up chemical reactions)
Receptor molecules (cellular communication)

52. Proteins: What elements do they contain?? __C,H, O, & N______
Proteins are long chains of ??
____ amino acids________

53. Subunits of proteins are: Amino Acids (a.a.)
Draw a diagram of an amino acid:
carboxyl
group
amino
group H
R group (side chain)
There are 20 different types of amino acids.
They differ by the R (radical) side chain.

54. Subunits of proteins: Amino Acids (a.a.)
When the R group = H, you have the a.a., glycine
CH3
When the R group = CH3, you have the a.a., alanine
And then, there are 18 other ones that are common to most organisms, some are….
Amino Acids

55. Amino Acids tyrosine (tyr) lysine (lys) glutamate (glu) glycine (gly)
UNCHARGED,
POLAR AMINO ACID
POSITIVELY CHARGED,
POLAR AMINO ACID
NEGATIVELY CHARGED,
POLAR AMINO ACID
Amino Acids
valine (val)
phenylalanine (phe)
methionine (met)
proline (pro)
Fig. 3.12, p. 42

56. Properties of Amino Acids
Determined by the “R group”
Amino acids may be:
Non-polar or polar
Uncharged, Positively charged, Negatively charged
Acidic, Neutral, Basic
The properties of the amino acids determine the shapes of the proteins they are a part of.
The shape of the protein determines its function.
Are there only 20 different proteins? _NO!_

57. Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
Proteins are chains that can be _________ of amino acids long
The ___________ of the amino acids determines what protein it is.
Having amino acids in the wrong order, or substituting the wrong one, or skipping one will usually result in a defective protein.
Sometimes this is not really a big deal, but sometimes these mistakes can result in diseases like ________________________ or
___________________.

58. Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
Proteins are chains that can be _thousands_ of amino acids long
The _sequence (order)_ of the amino acids determines what protein it is.
Having amino acids in the wrong order, or substituting the wrong one, or skipping one will usually result in a defective protein.
Sometimes this is not really a big deal, but sometimes these mistakes can result in diseases like _diabetes_ or_cystic fibrosis__.

59. Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
What process would your body use to join up all those amino acids into a protein chain?
___Dehydration synthesis___
What would you have to remove to do it?
___water____

60. Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
The bond that holds 2 amino acids together is called a __peptide__ bond, so proteins (chains of many amino acids) are sometimes called
___polypeptides____
Actually, a protein is really 1 or more polypeptides bent and twisted into a 3-D shape. The shape of the protein determines its job or __function__.

61. Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
Remove water to combine 2 amino acids
Remove another water to add another amino acid
Protein Synthesis: Building amino acid polymers
Which forms a dipeptide
Continue adding a.a. to the chain to build a polypeptide
Fig. 3.14, p. 43

62. Digesting Proteins:
If you chemically added water to a long protein chain, what would you end up with?
__individual amino acids____
What type of reaction did you do?
___Hydrolysis______

63. Quick Review: Proteins
What element in proteins is NOT in carbos?
___Nitrogen___
Are proteins small molecules or large?
__large (complex)__
Another name for a protein?
__polypeptide__
Does the order of amino acids matter?
__YES!__(it determines the shape of the protein – which determines its job!)

64. Quick Review: Name a monosaccharide.
___glucose (fructose, deoxyribose)___
Name a polysaccharide.
___starch (glycogen, cellulose)_____
What process joins?
___dehydration synthesis____
What process breaks?
___hydrolysis____
Why is water inorganic?
___It has H, but no C!____

65. Protein Structure: The secondary protein structure occurs when
The primary protein structure is a sequence of a chain of
___amino acids____.
The secondary protein
structure occurs when
the sequence of amino
acids are linked by special bonds called hydrogen bonds, causing the chain to curl up (alpha helices) at some locations and form pleats (beta sheets) at other locations.

66. Protein Structure:
The tertiary protein structure occurs when certain attractions are present between the segments of the secondary structure, causing the molecule to form folds and kinks.
The quaternary protein structure is a protein consisting of more than one __polypeptide___ (chains of amino acids). It is the functional protein that is the right ___SHAPE__ to do a certain job!

67. Protein Shapes
The image to the right shows the quarternary structure of hemoglobin It is a protein found in red blood cells. It gives red blood cells their red color.
Hemoglobin is the right shape to bind to oxygen molecules to transport them throughout the body!
What determines hemoglobin’s shape?
The sequence of the amino acids!

68. Examples of Secondary Structure

69. alpha chain beta chain heme group beta chain alpha chain
coiled and twisted polypeptide chain of one globin molecule
beta chain
alpha chain
Fig. 3.17, p. 44

70. When proteins lose their shape: Denaturation
Disruption of three-dimensional shape
Breakage of the weak hydrogen bonds that hold proteins in their bent & twisted 3D shape
Causes of denaturation: pH
Temperature increase
Destroying protein shape disrupts its function—it can’t do its job anymore!

71. In summary: Proteins Examples Structure Protein Food Sources
Amino Acids
Dipeptides
Polypeptides
Structure
Protein Food Sources
Use of Proteins in Body

72. Lipids Compounds of … C,H, & O (less O than in carbos.) Fats Waxes
Tend to be insoluble in water
Definition:
Compounds of …
C,H, & O (less O than in carbos.)
Examples
Fats
Waxes
Phospholipids (in cell membranes)
(Write this definition next to “C. Lipids (fats)”)
Oils
Steroids

73. Uses of Lipids in the body:
Insulation & cushioning
Long term energy storage
Some hormones (progesterone, estrogen, & testosterone)
In cell membranes (for structure)
Uses of Lipids in the body:

74. The structure of fats & oils:
1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid molecules
(Combined by doing the process of dehydration synthesis 3 times! – each time a water is removed another fatty acid is attached to the glycerol)

75. The structure of fats & oils: Fatty Acids
Carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end
Carbon backbone (up to 36 C atoms)
Saturated - Single bonds between carbons
Unsaturated - One or more double bonds

76. Fatty acid molecules stearic acid = saturated oleic acid =
Carboxyl groups
Hydrocarbon chains
stearic acid =
saturated
oleic acid =
monounsaturated
linolenic acid =
polyunsaturated

77. The structure of fats & oils (a.k.a triglycerides)
Fatty acid(s) attached to glycerol
The entire molecule has a shape of the letter… E

78. Fats: Why do they store so much energy?
LONG fatty acid chains (15 + carbons long).
Each C held to another C by …
bonds.
Lots of bonds (to be broken)=
Lots of energy (to be released)!

79. Building fats & oils: Dehydration Synthesis
glycerol +
three fatty acid tails

80. Other lipids: Sterols and Derivatives
No fatty acids
Rigid backbone of four fused-together carbon rings
Cholesterol - most common type in animals

81. Long-chain fatty acids linked to long chain alcohols or carbon rings
Firm consistency, repel water
Important in water-proofing
Other lipids: Waxes

82. Unsaturated fats & oils
In Summary: Lipids
Examples
Saturated fats & oils
Unsaturated fats & oils
Waxes
Structure
Food Source
Use in Body