Essentials of Organizational Behavior

Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition Chapter 5 Personality and Values Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality framework and the Big Five model. Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE), self- monitoring, and proactive personality contribute to the understanding of personality. Describe how the situation affects whether personality predicts behavior. Contrast terminal and instrumental values. Describe the differences between person-job fit and person- organization fit. Compare Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE framework.

Personality Personality - the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others Most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits such as shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid Personality is often defined by characteristics such as outgoing or charming. However, psychologists define personality as the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. We study personality in Organizational Behavior because it impacts a number of important work outcomes. We can attempt to measure personality through a variety of methods. Often these methods are utilized in the hiring process to assist in hiring the right person for the job and the organization.

Assessing and Measuring Personality
Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions Help managers forecast who is best for a job Self-report surveys Most common Prone to error Evaluate on a series of factors Self-reports are the most common and easiest way to measure personality, but they are prone to error due to the fact that the individual is reporting all the data about themselves. Studies show that culture influences how we rate ourselves. People from individualistic countries trend toward self-enhancement, while those in collectivistic societies trend toward self-diminishment.

Personality Determinants
Personality reflects heredity and environment Heredity is the most dominant factor Genetics are more more influential than parents Environmental factors do have some influence Aging influences levels of ability Basic personality is constant There are many determinants of personality including heredity, environmental factors, and age. There has been a long-standing debate about whether genetics or environment are more important in determining personality. They both play an important role. The heredity approach refers to factors determined at conception such as physical stature and gender. This has been reaffirmed by studies that have looked at twins who were raised apart but still had similar personalities. However, there were differences observed leading to the idea the environmental factors can have some influence. Age does influence the level of ability that an individual has even though it is widely held that the basic personality stays constant throughout the life of the individual.

Dominant Personality Frameworks Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world Individuals are classified as: Extroverted or Introverted (E/I) Sensing or Intuitive (S/N) Thinking or Feeling (T/F) Judging or Perceiving (J/P) Classifications combined into 16 personality types (i.e., INTJ or ESTJ) The MBTI is the most widely used personality instrument worldwide. Participants are classified within four scales to determine 1 of 16 possible personality types. These types are broken down into four dichotomies. The first is extroverts who tend to be sociable and assertive versus introverts who tend to be quiet and shy. The second dichotomy is sensing and intuitive. Sensors are practical and orderly where intuits utilize unconscious processes. The third dichotomy is thinking and feeling. Thinking focuses on using reason and logic whereas feeling utilizes values and emotions. The final dichotomy is judging and perceiving. Judgers want order and structure whereas perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous.

MBTI – four classification scales
Extraverted versus Introverted (E or I). People scoring higher on the extraverted side of the scale are more outgoing, social, and assertive while those on the introvert side are quiet and shy. Sensing versus Intuitive (S or N). Sensing individuals are practical, enjoy order, and are detail oriented. Intuitive people are more big picture oriented and rely on gut feelings. Thinking versus Feeling (T or F) This scale is important in decision making: thinkers use reason and logic while feelers use emotions and their own personal values to make decisions. Judging versus Perceiving (J or P) Judgers are control-oriented and enjoy structure and order. Perceivers are more flexible and spontaneous.

Is MBTI a valid measure of personality?
1. Research is mixed about the MBTI’s validity as a measure of personality—with most of the evidence suggesting it isn’t. 2. One problem is that it forces a person into either one type or another (that is, you’re either introverted or extraverted). 3. There is no in-between, though people can be both extraverted and introverted to some degree. 4. The best we can say is that the MBTI can be a valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career guidance. 5. But because results tend to be unrelated to job performance, managers probably shouldn’t use it as a selection test for job candidates.

Measuring Personality Traits: The Big-Five Model
Five Traits: Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience Strongly supported relationship to job performance (especially conscientiousness) The Big Five model of personality sets forth that there are five basic dimensions that underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variations in human personalities. The Big Five factors are: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experiences. There is a lot of research that supports the Big Five model, and it has been shown to predict behavior at work.

Conscientiousness – Measures reliability High scorers are responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Low scorers are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. However, conscientious people also tend not to take risks and may find organizational change difficult to handle. The Big Five model of personality sets forth that there are five basic dimensions that underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variations in human personalities. The Big Five factors are: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experiences. There is a lot of research that supports the Big Five model, and it has been shown to predict behavior at work.

Extraversion: Deals with the comfort level with relationships. Scoring high in this factor means the respondent is more gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet. Extraverts tend to be happy in their jobs but may be impulsive and absent themselves from work to take on some other, more sensational tasks.

Agreeableness: Measures deference toward others. High scorers are cooperative, warm, and trusting while low scorers are cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. Agreeable workers are less likely to be involved in drugs and excessive drinking.

Emotional Stability (or Neuroticism – its opposite): Measures ability to handle stress. The more stable a person, the better he (or she) can handle stress. People with high emotional stability tend to become self- confident and secure. They often have higher life and job satisfaction. Low emotional stability scorers tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. Yet, surprisingly, low-scoring people make better and faster decisions when in a bad mood than do stable people.

Openness to Experience: Measures the range of interests and fascination with novelty, a proxy for creativity. People who score low on this factor tend to be conventional and enjoy familiar circumstances. High scorers tend to be creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. People high in this factor deal better with organizational change and are more adaptable.

Big Five Traits and OB As shown, the Big Five traits are related to job performance and also have other implications for work and life.

Three other socially undesirable traits The Dark Triad
Machiavellianism characterized by a duplicitous interpersonal style, a cynical disregard for morality, and a focus on self interest and personal gain.[ High Machs tend to be pragmatic, emotionally distant, and believe the ends justify the means High Machs tend to win in the short term but lose in the long term because no one likes them They care less about the sustainability of operations Researchers have found that three socially undesirable traits called the Dark Triad are relevant to organizational behavior. Machiavellianism describes a person who tends to be emotionally distant and believes that the ends justify the means. They tend to have a competitive drive and a need to win. They can be very persuasive in situations where there is direct interaction with minimal rules and people are distracted by emotions. Narcissism is a trait that often hinders job effectiveness. It describes a person who requires excessive admiration and has a strong sense of entitlement. Psychopathy refers to a lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm.

Narcissism A person with a grandiose view of self Requires excessive admiration Has a sense of self-entitlement and over- qualified for their position Arrogant – tune out information when it conflicts with their view of self A sense of entitlement Can be hypersensitive and fragile Can be more charismatic Researchers have found that three socially undesirable traits called the Dark Triad are relevant to organizational behavior. Machiavellianism describes a person who tends to be emotionally distant and believes that the ends justify the means. They tend to have a competitive drive and a need to win. They can be very persuasive in situations where there is direct interaction with minimal rules and people are distracted by emotions. Narcissism is a trait that often hinders job effectiveness. It describes a person who requires excessive admiration and has a strong sense of entitlement. Psychopathy refers to a lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm.

Psychopathy – The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm Anti social personality Hard influence tactics ( threats, manipulation bullying) Researchers have found that three socially undesirable traits called the Dark Triad are relevant to organizational behavior. Machiavellianism describes a person who tends to be emotionally distant and believes that the ends justify the means. They tend to have a competitive drive and a need to win. They can be very persuasive in situations where there is direct interaction with minimal rules and people are distracted by emotions. Narcissism is a trait that often hinders job effectiveness. It describes a person who requires excessive admiration and has a strong sense of entitlement. Psychopathy refers to a lack of concern for others, and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm.

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
Core self-evaluation People with positive core self-evaluation like themselves and see themselves as capable and effective in the workplace Self-monitoring Adjusts behavior to meet external, situational factors Pro-active personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres People with positive CSE perform better because they set more ambitious goals, are more committed to their goals, and persist longer in attempting to reach them. Self-monitoring is another personality trait that is linked to job performance. It is the ability to adjust behavior to meet situational factors. High monitors are more likely to become leaders in the workplace. Proactive personalities are people who are able to identify opportunities and take action to capitalize on that opportunity. They also have the ability to persevere through difficulties to meet their goals. Proactive personality may be important for work teams.

Personality and Situations (1 of 2)
The effect of particular traits on organization behavior depends on the situation Two frameworks Situation Strength Trait Activation

Personality and Situations (2 of 2)
Situation strength theory – the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation Analyze situation strength in terms of: Clarity Consistency Constraints Consequences Trait activation theory (TAT) – predicts that some situations, events, or interventions “activate” a trait more than others Strong situations pressure us to exhibit the right behavior, clearly show us what that behavior is, and discourage the wrong behavior. In weak situations, “anything goes,” and thus we are freer to express our personality in our behaviors. Thus, research suggests that personality traits better predict behavior in weak situations than in strong ones. Research shows that in a supportive environment, everyone behaves prosocially, but in an environment that is not so nice, whether an individual has the personality to behave prosocially makes a major difference.

Trait Activation Theory
Trait Activation Theory: Jobs in Which Certain Big Five Traits Are More Relevant

Values Values represent basic, enduring convictions that "a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" Values represent basic convictions that make judgments about what is the best mode of conduct or end-state of existence.

Value thought starters
1. In most colleges and universities, what is the one sin that justified capital punishment? Answer: _____________________________ 2. How many of you are willing to consider violating a personal value in order to advance a personal objective

Value Systems Represent a prioritizing of individual or institutional values by: Content – importance to the individual Intensity – relative importance with other values The hierarchy tends to be relatively stable Values are the foundation for attitudes, motivation, and behavior Influence perception and cloud objectivity Value systems represent individual values and prioritizes them based on how important the particular value is to the individual and how intense their feelings are about that particular value. The way individuals set up their values in order of importance is relatively stable over time and sets the foundation for many work outcomes such as attitudes, motivation, and behavior. In addition, values are important in the workplace because they can influence an individual’s perception and cloud their objectivity.

Person-Organization Fit
It is more important that employees’ personalities fit with the organizational culture than with the characteristics of any specific job The fit predicts job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover This idea can be further linked to the workplace by looking at person-organization fit. The employee’s personality needs to fit with the organizational culture. When employees find organizations that match their values, they are more likely to be selected and correspondingly be more satisfied with their work. The big five personality types are often helpful in matching the individuals with organizational culture. Person-job fit and person-organization fit are considered to be the most relevant dimensions for the workplace, but person-group fit is important in team settings and person-supervisor fit is relevant to job satisfaction and performance outcomes.

Cultural Values Values differ across cultures
There are global implications to personality and values in the workplace. Frameworks such as the Big Five are transferable across cultures; in fact, it has been used worldwide. However, the applicability is higher in some cultures than others. Values, on the other hand, differ to a great degree across cultures. Geert Hofstede developed a framework for assessing culture. He breaks up his framework of understanding into five value dimensions: power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term versus short-term orientation. The GLOBE, as discussed earlier, is also helpful in framing differences between cultures.

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures (1 of 2)
Five factors: Power Distance Individualism vs. Collectivism Masculinity vs. Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation Power distance is the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Low-distance occurs when there is relatively equal power between those with status and wealth and those without. Higher distance occurs when there is unequal power distribution between groups. The second component in Hofstede’s framework is individualism vs. collectivism. Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act on their own rather than in a group. Collectivism is the idea that people operate within a social framework where they help others out and they expect help when they need it. Hofstede offers a third component in his model that distinguishes between masculinity and femininity. Masculinity is the extent to which the culture prefers achievement, power, and control versus characteristics that are more feminine in nature. The fourth component is uncertainty avoidance. This is the extent to which a society is willing to live with uncertainty and ambiguity. High uncertainty avoidance cultures will try to avoid ambiguous situations as much as possible. Lower uncertainty avoidance cultures do not mind ambiguity. The final component is time orientation. Long-term orientation societies will emphasize the future and what it takes to get to the future they desire, thrift and persistence. Short-term orientation societies will emphasize the here and now.

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures
Power Distance Index The extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. Inequality and power is perceived from the followers, or the lower level. A higher degree indicates that hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, without doubt or reason. A lower degree of the Index signifies that people question authority and attempt to distribute power.[6]

Masculinity vs. femininity Masculinity is defined as a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Femininity represents a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Women in the respective societies tend to display different values. In feminine societies, they share modest and caring views equally with men. In more masculine societies, women are more emphatic and competitive, but notably less emphatic than the men. In other words, they still recognize a gap between male and female values. This dimension is frequently viewed as taboo in highly masculine societies.[6][7]

Uncertainty avoidance index A society's tolerance for ambiguity in which people embrace or avert an event of something unexpected, unknown, or away from the status quo. Societies that score a high degree in this index opt for stiff codes of behavior, guidelines, laws, and generally rely on absolute Truth, or the belief that one lone Truth dictates everything and people know what it is. A lower degree in this index shows more acceptance of differing thoughts/ideas. Society tends to impose fewer regulations, ambiguity is more accustomed to, and the environment is more free-flowing.[6][7]

Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation Associates the connection of the past with the current and future actions/challenges. A lower degree of this index (short-term) indicates that traditions are honored and kept, while steadfastness is valued. Societies with a high degree in this index (long-term) views adaptation and circumstantial, pragmatic problem-solving as a necessity. A poor country that is short-term oriented usually has little to no economic development, while long-term oriented countries continue to develop to a point.[6][7]

Indulgence vs. restraint (IND) Essentially a measure of happiness, whether or not simple joys are fulfilled. Indulgence is defined as a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun. Its counterpart is defined as a society that controls gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms. (e.g. –pay your dues). Indulgent societies believe themselves to be in control of their own life and emotions; restrained societies believe other factors dictate their life and emotions.[6][7]

Country Power Distance Rank Individualism Rank Masculinity Rank Uncertainty Avoidance Rank Long-term Orientation Rank Australia 41 2 16 37 22-24 Great Britain 42-44 3 9-10 47-48 28-29 Greece 27-28 30 18-19 1 Guatemala 2-3 53 43 Hong Kong 15-16 49-50 Japan 33 22-23 7 4 Malaysia 36 25-26 46 Pakistan 32 24-25 34 Singapore 13 39-41 28 9 Sweden 10-11 20 United States 38 15 27 Exhibit 5-4 Hofstede’s Cultural Values by Nation Source: Copyright Geert Hofstede BV, Reprinted with permission. The exhibit shows the ratings and ranks of 53 countries. For example, power distance is higher in Malaysia than in any other country. The United States is very individualistic; in fact, it’s the most individualistic nation of all (closely followed by Australia and Great Britain). Guatemala is the most collectivistic nation. The country with the highest masculinity rank by far is Japan, and the country with the highest femininity rank is Sweden. Greece scores the highest in uncertainty avoidance, while Singapore scores the lowest. Hong Kong has one of the longest-term orientations; Pakistan has the shortest-term orientation.

GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures - 1993
Ongoing study with nine factors: Assertiveness Future orientation Gender differentiation Uncertainty avoidance Power distance Individualism/ collectivism In-group collectivism Performance orientation Humane orientation The GLOBE framework takes a look at nine dimensions of national culture. It is similar to Hofstede’s model but adds the humane and performance orientations. The humane orientation looks at how much society rewards people for being altruistic and kind where the performance orientation looks at how much society encourages and rewards good work.

Implications for Managers
Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness Use MBTI in training and development to help employees better understand themselves and team members, and facilitate communication Evaluate your employees’ jobs, their work groups, and your organization to determine the optimal personality fit Take into account employees’ situational factors when evaluating their observable personality traits, and lower the situation strength to better ascertain personality characteristics Take into consideration people’s different cultures

Essentials of Organizational Behavior

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