1. Interspecific Relationships
Between members of different species

2. Commensalism One species benefits (+)
The other species is neutral (o) – neither benefits nor harms.

3. Commensalism One species benefits (+)
The other species is neutral (o) – neither benefits nor harms.
EG – Barnacles cement themselves onto shells of other barnacles. The barnacle can attach and feed and the other is not bothered.

4. Mutualism
Relationship between 2 species where both benefit.

5. Mutualism Relationship between 2 species where both benefit.
Their reproductive fitness is increased (they have a greater chance of surviving to reproductive age or produce more offspring)

6. Mutualism Relationship between 2 species where both benefit.
Their reproductive fitness is increased (they have a greater chance of surviving to reproductive age or produce more offspring)
EG – Clownfish. Hide in anemone’s tentacles for protection. Clownfish protect the anemone against butterflyfish that prey on it.

7. Exploitation
Involves two members of two species where one benefits (+) and one is harmed (-).

8. Exploitation
Involves two members of two species where one benefits (+) and one is harmed (-).

9. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.

10. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.

11. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.
Can be distinguished by what they eat:
Grazers feed on grass and meadow plants

12. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.
Can be distinguished by what they eat:
Grazers feed on grass and meadow plants
Browsers feed on tree foliage

13. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.
Can be distinguished by what they eat:
Grazers feed on grass and meadow plants
Browsers feed on tree foliage
Nectar feeders

14. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.
Can be distinguished by what they eat:
Grazers feed on grass and meadow plants
Browsers feed on tree foliage
Nectar feeders
Pollen feeders
Sap suckers

15. Herbivory (exploitation)
Herbivores eat plants – they benefit and the plant is harmed.
Herbivores are the primary consumers in all food chains – without herb’s carnivores would not exist.
Can be distinguished by what they eat:
Grazers feed on grass and meadow plants
Browsers feed on tree foliage
Nectar feeders
Pollen feeders
Sap suckers
Chewers – eg caterpillars

16. Herbivory
Most herbivores are polyphagous (eat a variety of plants) and without them, dominant plant species would out-compete slower growing species.

17. Mechanical defence against herbivory
Plants have evolved devices that attempt to prevent to be eaten:
Spines (Eg holly)
Thorns (Eg hawthorn)

18. Mechanical defence against herbivory
Plants have evolved devices that attempt to prevent to be eaten:
Spines (Eg holly)
Thorns (Eg hawthorn)
Prickles (Eg roses)
Stings. Release chemicals from secretory cells. The tip of the hair breaks off upon contact into the skin, causing irritation. (Eg NZ native nettle Ongaonga)

19. Chemical defence against herbivory
Cyanogenic glycosides – release hydrogen cyanide when the plant’s tissues are damaged (Eg karaka seeds)

20. Chemical defence against herbivory
Cyanogenic glycosides – release hydrogen cyanide when the plant’s tissues are damaged (Eg karaka seeds)
Cardiac glycosides – heart poisons. (Eg tutu, foxglove, swan plant)

21. Chemical defence against herbivory
Cyanogenic glycosides – release hydrogen cyanide when the plant’s tissues are damaged (Eg karaka seeds)
Cardiac glycosides – heart poisons. (Eg tutu, foxglove, swan plant)
Insect hormones – ferns and conifers are generally resistant to insect attack – hormones disrupt the growth of the insects.

22. Chemical defence against herbivory
Cyanogenic glycosides – release hydrogen cyanide when the plant’s tissues are damaged (Eg karaka seeds)
Cardiac glycosides – heart poisons. (Eg tutu, foxglove, swan plant)
Insect hormones – ferns and conifers are generally resistant to insect attack – hormones disrupt the growth of the insects.
Tannins – make plants bitter and leaves hard to digest.

23. Chemical defence against herbivory
Cyanogenic glycosides – release hydrogen cyanide when the plant’s tissues are damaged (Eg karaka seeds)
Cardiac glycosides – heart poisons. (Eg tutu, foxglove, swan plant)
Insect hormones – ferns and conifers are generally resistant to insect attack – hormones disrupt the growth of the insects.
Tannins – make plants bitter and leaves hard to digest.
*Herb’s can overcome this by focussing on young leaves which often have less chemical defence.

24. Parasitism
A parasite can live on and feed off another living organism

25. Parasitism A parasite can live on and feed off another living organism
Ectoparasites – live or feed on the outside of the host
Endoparasites – on in inside

26. Parasitism A parasite can live on and feed off another living organism
Ectoparasites – live or feed on the outside of the host
Endoparasites – on in inside
Mistletoe are partial parasites

27. Parasitism A parasite can live on and feed off another living organism
Ectoparasites – live or feed on the outside of the host
Endoparasites – on in inside
Mistletoe are partial parasites
A parasite depends on the host which is not usually killed – although weakened.

28. Ectoparasites
Many bloodsucking ectoparasites are vectors in the transmission of disease – eg some mosquitoes transmit malaria.

29. Ectoparasites
Many bloodsucking ectoparasites are vectors in the transmission of disease – eg some mosquitoes transmit malaria.
Many ectoparasites are wingless (lice and fleas) – often having strong claws to hold onto host.

30. Endoparasites
Typically inhabit the gut (tapeworms), bile duct (liver fluke), and blood vessels (roundworms).

31. Endoparasites
Typically inhabit the gut (tapeworms), bile duct (liver fluke), and blood vessels (roundworms).
Because endoparasites don’t have to find food or escape predators, they have reduced sensory, muscular an nervous systems.

32. Endoparasites
Typically inhabit the gut (tapeworms), bile duct (liver fluke), and blood vessels (roundworms).
Because endoparasites don’t have to find food or escape predators, they have reduced sensory, muscular an nervous systems.
They have structures to hold on – hooks, suckers etc

33. Endoparasites
Typically inhabit the gut (tapeworms), bile duct (liver fluke), and blood vessels (roundworms).
Because endoparasites don’t have to find food or escape predators, they have reduced sensory, muscular an nervous systems.
They have structures to hold on – hooks, suckers etc
Highly developed reproductive capacity – host will eventually die, so offspring needs to get to new hosts. Eggs can leave one host and be eaten by another.

34. Social parasites
Brood parasitism – a cuckoo uses a member of another species to raise its young.

35. Social parasites
Brood parasitism – a cuckoo uses a member of another species to raise its young.
Even though the young cuckoos don’t learn anything from their own species, they still have no trouble recognising cuckoos when at reproductive age.

36. Parasitism in plants
A true plant parasite have no roots and chlorophyll and are entirely attached to the host plant.