1. Research in Psychology
Ms. K. Tsitsopoulos A.P. Psychology

2. First Psychological Experiment in History
King Psamtik I of Egypt, in the latter half of the 7th Century B.C. believed the Egyptians were the most ancient race. In order to prove that he took two infants and isolated them with a herdsman. They were not allowed to hear spoken language. Psamtik believed that if children had no opportunity to learn a language from older people around them, they would spontaneously speak the primal, inborn language of humankind, which he expected to be Egyptian. The experiment worked, in that the first word/noise they uttered was becos. This was the Phrygian word for bread, hence he was disappointed to know the Phrygians were the older race Today we know that under conditions of isolation there is no innate language and that children who hear no speech, never speak. Yet we admire him for trying to prove his hypothesis and having the notion that thoughts arise in the mind through internal processes that can be investigated.

3. Goals of Psychological Research
Description: to describe or gather information about the behavior being studied and to present what is known
Explanation: psychologists seek to explain why people (or animals) behave as they do. (they come up with a hypothesis and later a theory)
Prediction: by studying past behavior, psychologists can predict future behaviors
Influence: some psychologists seek to influence behavior in helpful ways (therapeutic treatments)

4. Scientific Method Ask a question? Form a Hypothesis (educated guess)
Conduct an experiment
Analyze the data
Create conclusions

6. The Process of Doing Research
First, select a topic, ASK A QUESTION!
Then, search the literature
Find out what others have done that might apply to your area of interest

7. The Process of Doing Research
Next, formulate a hypothesis
Hypothesis: specific statement of what you expect to happen (educated guess)
State the relationship between two variables
Variable: in an experiment, any factor that is measured or controlled and is capable of change

8. The Process of Doing Research
Then pick your research method
Experimental vs. correlational (Design)
Field vs. laboratory (Setting)
Finally, collect & analyze your data

9. Empirical Theory Knowledge based on direct observation
Set of ideas which try to explain what we observe
Goal is to find support OR disprove
We can never prove!!

10. Experimental Research
Research that manipulates one variable (IV) to see effect on other variable (DV)
Try to hold everything else constant

11. True experiments have…
Random sampling: selecting participants randomly from population (and a lot of them! The bigger the sample—the better!)
Representative Sampling: the sample can represent the population you’re testing
Example: How tall is the average male in Illinois? Should I include the b-ball players from the Chicago Bulls?? Is that representative?

12. Let’s take a closer look . . .at variables
Dependent variable (outcome variable)
The variable that may change in response to changes of the independent variable
The factor that is being measured
Independent variable (predictor variable)
Control group doesn’t get this!
The factor being manipulated or changed
The variable whose effect is being studied

13. Experimental Group: the group to which an independent variable is applied
Control Group: the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group EXCEPT that the independent variable is not applied

14. Example
Do students get better test grades in classrooms with a higher temperature or lower temperature?
Dependent Variable?
Independent Variable?
Control Group?
Experimental Group(s)?

15. Example Dependent Variable? Independent Variable? Control Group?
Are men or women more likely to stop and help someone when their car breaks down?
Dependent Variable?
Independent Variable?
Control Group?
Experimental Group(s)?

16. Example Does playing violent video games cause violence in teenagers?
Dependent Variable?
Independent Variable?
Control Group?
Experimental Group(s)?

17. Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
Psychology 7e in Modules

18. Design Differences Correlational Design Experimental Design
a researcher examines relationships among variables that are not manipulated by the researcher
Track trends and patterns
For example: researchers may study developmental changes, compare males and females, or look at the impact of disasters on the incidence of depression.
 the researcher does manipulate or change some characteristic(s) of the situation and then measures to determine the effects of the manipulation or change
For example: Manipulating or changing temperatures in a testing environment

19. Experimental vs. correlational
Correlational: observe the relationship between two variables
Describe patterns of behavior
Types include
Naturalistic observation
Case studies
Surveys

20. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
PROS:
Provides descriptive data
CONS:
Observer bias and subject self-consciousness can distort results
Jane Goodall was famous for her naturalistic observation of chimpanzees in the wild
Psychology 7e in Modules

22. Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. (up to 5 people)
PROS: Provide detailed descriptive analyses of new, complex, or rare phenomena
CONS: may not provide representative picture of phenomena (not able to generalize)
Preview Question 8: How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?
Sigmund Freud used this technique!
Psychology 7e in Modules

24. Survey
A technique for getting the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
PROS: gathers large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively CONS: sampling errors, poorly phrased questions and response biases can distort results
Psychology 7e in Modules

25. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Problems with Surveys
Wording Effects
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbidden)

26. Correlational research
Advantages
Sometimes manipulation of variables is impossible or unethical
Efficient – look at lots of data
Disadvantages
CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSATION
Could be a lurking variable that cannot be controlled like in a lab

27. Types of Studies:
Longitudinal Study: a study conducted on participants over a long period of time (months, years) Pros: better data because of how long you study the participants Cons: some participants could back out after a while, or die
Example: Tracking IQ scores of children who were breastfed as infants compared to children who were not breastfed as infants.

28. Types of Studies:
Cross-Sectional study: a study conducted on participants of different age groups
Pros: better comparative data between different age groups
Cons: Age is the main factor measured, even though the participants may be reacting because of other variables
Example: Researchers study which age groups watch which T.V. shows to determine what products to advertise during commercial breaks.

29. Placebo Effect
An effect or behavior caused by your beliefs and expectations as opposed to something external
An effect or behavior caused by a substance or condition which the recipient assumes is working
Example: Participant takes a pill assuming it will relieve their headache. Their headache does go away, but the pill they took was a sugar pill. The IDEA of the pill helped them recover! That’s the placebo effect!

30. Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.

31. We tend to think we know more than we do!
Overconfidence
We tend to think we know more than we do!
82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in terms of safety
81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%.

32. Ethics in Research Should the study be done?
Value vs. potential cost
APA guidelines
How do we protect Participants?
Informed consent
Confidentiality & anonymity
Debriefing
No long lasting psychological harm