1. Land Use
Chapter 10: Forests

2. Central Case: Battling over the last big trees
In 1993, protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees on Vancouver Island, British Columbia
Most of Canada’s old-growth temperate rainforest is already gone
20% of the jobs depends on the timber industry
Both sides struck a deal allowing environmentally friendly practices and encouraging ecotourism

3. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING FORESTS
Forests provide a number of ecological and economic services that researchers have attempted to estimate their total monetary value.
30% of all land mass
Figure 10-4

4. Types of Forests
Old-growth forest: uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years.
22% of world’s forest.
Hosts many species with specialized niches.
Figure 10-5

5. Secondary Growth Forests
Second-growth forest: a stand of trees resulting from natural secondary succession
After clear-cutting
After natural processes
Weather
Fire
Wind
Ice

6. Types of Forests
Tree plantation: planted stands of a particular tree species.
What would “H” be?
Figure 10-6

7. Resources are vital to us
We need to carefully manage the limited resources we take from the natural world
Resource management = the practice of harvesting potentially renewable resources in ways that do not deplete them
Resource managers are influenced by political, economic, and social factors
A key question is whether to focus on the resource of interest or to look more broadly at the entire environmental system

8. Natural resources are vital to us
We need resources
Soils: agriculture, natural communities
Water: drinking, agriculture, wildlife
Wildlife and fisheries: game, nongame, and marine species
Rangeland: livestock
Minerals: mined nonrenewable resources

9. Maximum sustainable yield
Maximum sustainable yield = aims to achieve the maximum amount of resource extraction
Without depleting the resource from one harvest to the next
Populations grow most rapidly at an intermediate size
Population size is about half its carrying capacity
Managed populations are well below what they would naturally be
Reducing populations so drastically affects other species and can change the entire ecosystem

10. Ecosystem-based management
Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes
Carefully managing ecologically important areas
Considering patterns at the landscape level
Protecting some forested areas
It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management
Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

11. Adaptive management evolves and improves
Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods
Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
A fusion of science and management
Time-consuming and complicated
The 1994 Northwest Forest Plan resolved disputes between loggers and preservationists over the remaining old-growth temperate rainforests in the continental U.S.
Allowed limited logging
Protected species and ecosystems
Science-guided management in Oregon, Washington, and California

12. Forest Management Forests cover over 30% of Earth’s land surface
Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles
Provide wood for fuel, construction, paper production
Foresters, professionals who manage forests through the practice of forestry, must balance ecosystem services with demand for wood products

13. Ecological value of forests
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
A forest provides many ecosystem services
Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

14. Economic value of forests
Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (boats), paper
Helped society achieve a high standard of living
Logging Locations:
Boreal Forests: Canada, Russia
Rainforests: Brazil, Indonesia
Conifer Forests/Pine Plantations: U.S.
In 2005, over 1/3 all forests were designated for timber production

15. Demand for wood leads to deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests
Alters landscapes and ecosystems
Degrades soil
Causes species decline and extinction
Ruins civilizations
Adds carbon dioxide to the air
Developing countries boost their economies and get land for their growing populations by logging forests

16. Deforestation in America and Canada
Deforestation propelled the westward expansion and growth of America and Canada
Eastern deciduous forests were the first to be logged for farms and to build cities (i.e., Chicago)
Timber companies moved south to the Ozarks and west to the Rockies

17. Loggers moved westward, searching for large trees
Primary forest = natural forest uncut by people
Little remained by the 20th century
Second-growth trees = grown to partial maturity after old-growth timber has been cut

18. Loggers lose their jobs with deforestation
As each region is deforested, the timber industry declines and moves on
Local loggers lose their jobs
Once the remaining ancient trees of North America are gone, loggers will once again lose jobs
Companies will simply move to another area
The scarcity of remaining old-growth trees fuels scientific concerns and empassions environmentalists

19. Deforestation is proceeding rapidly worldwide
Uncut tropical forests still remain in many developing countries
Technology allows for even faster exploitation
Deforestation is rapid in places such as Brazil and Indonesia
Developing countries are so desperate for economic development, they have few logging restrictions
Short-term economic benefits go to foreign multinational corporations
Governments often help companies, at the expense of native people

20. “Timber famine” fears spurred forest protection
National forest system = a system of forest reserves and public lands
To grow trees, produce timber, protect watersheds, and ensure future timber supplies
Resulted from depletion of U.S. forests and fear of a “timber famine”
77 million ha (191 million acres); 8% of the U.S. land area
The U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905
Manage forests for the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run, including logging

21. Federal agencies own land in the U.S.

22. Timber is extracted from public and private land
Timber is extracted by private companies, even on public land
Forest Service employees plan and manage timber sales and build roads
The companies log and sell the timber for profit

23. Most logging occurs on private land
But, millions of cubic feet per year are still logged from national forests
Timber harvesting remains stable in developed countries
Timber companies manage forests according to the maximum sustained yield approach
Management on public lands reflects economic forces, along with social and political ones
These change over time
Public concern, changing management philosophies and economics caused harvests to decrease

24. Plantation forestry The timber industry focuses on timber plantations
Fast-growing species
Monocultures
Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age
Trees are cut at the end of the rotation time and replanted
Plantations are crops, not functional forests
Some harvesting methods maintain uneven-aged (mixed ages of trees and species) tree stands

25. Harvesting timber: clear-cutting
All trees in the area are cut
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impact on forest ecosystems
May mimic some natural forms of disturbance
Destroy entire communities
Soil erosion
Public is outraged over this type of harvesting

26. Harvesting: other methods
Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the area
Shelterwood cutting = a small number of trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut
All methods disturb habitat
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

27. Public forests can be managed for many things
Increased public awareness caused people to urge changed forest management
For recreation, wildlife and ecosystem integrity, instead of logging
Critics protested federal subsidies of logging companies
Multiple use policy = national forests were to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses
In reality, timber production is the primary use
The Forest Service loses $100 million/yr by selling timber below cost

28. Harvesting forests

29. Harvesting Trees
Building roads into previously inaccessible forests paves the way for fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.
Figure 10-8

30. Harvesting Trees
Trees can be harvested individually from diverse forests (selective cutting), an entire forest can be cut down (clear cutting), or portions of the forest is harvested (e.g. strip cutting).
Figure 10-9

31. Harvesting Trees
Effects of clear-cutting in the state of Washington, U.S.
Figures and 10-11

32. Controversy over Logging in U.S. National Forests
There has been an ongoing debate over whether U.S. national forests should be primarily for:
Timber.
Ecological services.
Recreation.
Mix of these uses.
Figure 10-14

33. Solutions: Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees
Tree harvesting can be reduced by wasting less wood and making paper and charcoal fuel from fibers that do not come from trees.
Kenaf is a promising plant for paper production.
Figure 10-15

34. American Forests in a Globalized Economy
Timber from tree plantations in temperate and tropical countries is decreasing the need for timber production in the U.S.
This could help preserve the biodiversity in the U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut old-growth and second-growth forests.
This may lead to private land owners to sell less profitable land to developers.
Forest management policy will play a key role.

35. CASE STUDY: FOREST RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S.
U.S. forests cover more area than in 1920.
Since the 1960’s, an increasing area of old growth and diverse second-growth forests have been clear-cut.
Often replace with tree farms.
Decreases biodiversity.
Disrupts ecosystem processes.

36. The National Forest Management Act (1976)
Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had to be drawn up for every national forest
Guidelines included:
Consideration of both economic and environmental factors
Provision for species diversity
Ensuring research and monitoring
Permitting only sustainable harvests
Protection of soils and wetlands
Assessing all impacts before logging to protect resources

37. New forestry management is under attack
Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances
Harvesting methods are based on ecosystem approaches
The Bush administration has rolled back these regulations
Freed managers from requirements of the Act
Loosened environmental protections
Repealed President Clinton’s roadless rule, which protected 31% of national forests from road building
California, Oregon, and New Mexico have sued the government to reinstate the roadless rule

38. Fire policy also stirs controversy
For over 100 years, the Forest Service suppressed all fires
But many ecosystems depend on fires
Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires
Which are much worse
Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

39. Types and Effects of Forest Fires
Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or harm forests.
Burn away flammable ground material.
Release valuable mineral nutrients.
Figure 10-13

40. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
To reduce fire damage:
Set controlled surface fires.
Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don’t threaten life and property.
Clear small areas around property subject to fire.

41. Solutions: Controversy Over Fire Management
In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy Forest Restoration Act:
Allows timber companies to cut medium and large trees in 71% of the national forests.
In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-prone trees and underbrush.
Some forest scientists believe this could increase severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and leaving highly flammable slash.

42. Prescribed fires are misunderstood
Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions
Effective
May get out of control
Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference
Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees
Passed in response to forest fires

43. How Would You Vote?
Do you support repealing or modifying the Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003?
a. Yes. Local officials and scientists are probably most qualified to manage their local forests.
b. No. The initiative favors the timber companies rather than effectively protecting and managing the forests.

44. Salvage logging Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance
Seems logical, but is really destructive
Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals
Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage
Promotes future fires
Increases commercial logging in national forests
Decreases oversight and public participation

45. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards
Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber
Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood
Encourages better logging practices

46. Global Outlook: Extent of Deforestation
Human activities have reduced the earth’s forest cover by as much as half.
Losses are concentrated in developing countries.
Figure 10-7

48. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis
Almost half the people in the developing world face a shortage of fuelwood and charcoal.
In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested.
MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal from spent sugarcane.
Unsustainable activity

49. Solutions We can use forests more sustainably by emphasizing:
Economic value of ecological services.
Harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished.
Protecting old-growth and vulnerable areas.
Figure 10-12

50. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
Large areas of ecologically and economically important tropical forests are being cleared and degraded at a fast rate.
Figure 10-16

51. CASE STUDY: TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
At least half of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species live in tropical rain forests.
Large areas of tropical forest are burned to make way for cattle ranches and crops.
Figure 10-17

52. Why Should We Care about the Loss of Tropical Forests?
About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests.
Figure 10-18

53. Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Tranquilizer, high
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication
Fig a, p. 205

54. Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure
Fig b, p. 205

55. Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
Fig c, p. 205

56. Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment
Fig d, p. 205

57. Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease,
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia
Fig e, p. 205

58. Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many
Figure 10.18
Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plants and animals (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide
Fig f, p. 205

59. Causes of Tropical Deforestation and Degradation
Tropical deforestation results from a number of interconnected primary and secondary causes.
Figure 10-19

60. Sustaining Tropical Forests
Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention
Restoration
Protect most diverse and endangered areas
Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry
Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use
Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use
Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation easements
Certify sustainably grown timber
Reduce illegal cutting
Reduce poverty
Slow population growth
Reforestation
Rehabilitation of degraded areas
Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared areas
Figure 10.20
Solutions: ways to protect tropical forests and use them more sustainably. QUESTION: Which three of these solutions do you think are the most important?
Fig , p. 207

61. Kenya’s Green Belt Movement: Individuals Matter
Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement.
The main goal is to organize poor women to plant (for fuelwood) and protect millions of trees.
In 2004, awarded Nobel peace prize.
Figure 10-10A