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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed)
Chapter 9 Memory
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Memory Memory Flashbulb Memory
persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
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Memory Memory as Information Processing Encoding similar to a computer
write to file save to disk read from disk Encoding the processing of information into the memory system
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Memory Storage Retrieval
the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval process of getting information out of memory
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Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Working Memory focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
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Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten Long Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
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A Simplified Memory Model
External events Sensory memory Short-term Long-term Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding Retrieving
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Encoding- Getting Information In
Effortful Automatic
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Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information space time frequency well-learned information word meanings we can learn automatic processing reading backwards
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Encoding Effortful Processing Rehearsal
requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
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Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables Spacing Effect
TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice
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Encoding 20 15 10 5 8 16 24 32 42 53 64 Time in minutes
8 16 24 32 42 53 64 Time in minutes taken to relearn list on day 2 Number of repetitions of list on day 1
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Encoding-Serial Position Effect
12 Percentage of words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Position of word in list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
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What Do We Encode? Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
encoding of meaning including meaning of words Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words Visual Encoding encoding of picture images
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Encoding
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Encoding Imagery Mnemonics mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
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Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
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Encoding- Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled
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Encoding Hierarchies complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding) Meaning (semantic Organization Chunks Hierarchies
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Storage- Retaining Information
Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
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Storage- Short Term Memory
limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2
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Storage- Short Term Memory
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Percentage who recalled consonants
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Storage- Long Term Memory
How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze lesion cortex test memory Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention
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Storage- Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning
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Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects
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Storage- Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus
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Retrieval- Getting Information Out
Recall the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test Recognition the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test
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Retrieval Relearning Priming
amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
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Retrieval Cues Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info Context Effects memory works better in the context of original learning
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Retrieval Cues 10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water
10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled
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Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen Mood Congruent Memory
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before" Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
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Retrieval Cues After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
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Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the memory system Attention is selective we cannot attend to everything in our environment William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing
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Forgetting as Encoding Failure
External events Sensory memory Short- term Long- Attention Encoding failure leads to forgetting
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Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?
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Forgetting Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days
1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 Time in days since learning list Percentage of list retained when relearning Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time
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Time in years after completion of Spanish course
Forgetting The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Retention drops, then levels off ½ 14½ ½ ½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of original vocabulary retained
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Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory External events Attention Encoding Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval Sensory memory Short-term Long-term
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Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
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Forgetting as Interference
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Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting Retroactive Interference Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep After remaining awake Hours elapsed after learning syllables 90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of syllables recalled
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Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
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Forgetting Information bits Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded Long-term storage - Some items are altered or lost Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cues moods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Information bits
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Forgetting- Interference
Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise history Repression defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French
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Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
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Memory Construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
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Memory Construction People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions Imagining events can create false memories Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony
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Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome
Repressed or Constructed? Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
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Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
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Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices associate with peg words- something already stored make up story chunk-acronyms
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Improve Your Memory Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference Minimize interference Test your own knowledge rehearse determine what you do not yet know
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