1. Chapter 11 Lecture Outline
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2. Blood
11.1 The Composition and
Functions of Blood

3. Introduction Composition of blood; layers after centrifuging: Plasma
Makes up 55% of whole blood by volume
Formed elements
Upper – buffy coat – white blood cells and platelets
Lower – red blood cells

4. Composition of Blood

5. Composition of Blood, cont.

6. Introduction, cont.
Hematocrit – percent of blood volume consisting of red blood cells
Normally 45%
Males usually have a higher hematocrit than females

7. Functions of Blood
1. Transportation
2. Defense
3. Regulation

8. Blood
11.2 Components of Blood

9. Plasma Liquid portion of blood
92% is water, 8% is various salts and organic molecules
Plasma proteins – help maintain homeostasis in various ways

10. Plasma, cont. 4 Plasma proteins: Albumins
Contribute to osmotic pressure
Globulins
Alpha and beta – produced by the liver; transport metals and vitamins
Bind to lipids, forming lipoproteins
Gamma – type of antibodies
Fibrinogen – function in blood clotting
Prothrombin – function in blood clotting

11. Plasma

12. Formed Elements Produced continuously in the red bone marrow of the:
Skull
Ribs
Vertebrae
Iliac crests
Ends of long bones

13. Formed Elements

14. Formed Elements, cont. Hematopoiesis –
Multipotent stem cells – red bone marrow cells that become other blood cells
Replicate by mitosis
Each daughter cell then differentiates into myeloid stem cells or lymphoid stem cells

15. Hematopoiesis

16. Formed Elements, cont. Hematopoiesis, cont.
Myeloid stem cells further differentiate into:
Red blood cells
Granular leukocytes
Monocytes
Megakaryocytes
Lymphoid stem cells differentiate into lymphocytes

17. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Small, biconcave disks
Anucleate
Very numerous: 4 to 6 million per mm3 of whole blood
Function to transport oxygen

18. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes), cont.
RBC’s contain proteins called hemoglobin – 200 million per RBC
Respiratory pigment
Oxyhemoglobin is formed when oxygen binds with hemoglobin – bright red
Hemoglobin that is not combined with oxygen is called deoxyhemoglobin – dark maroon

19. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes), cont.
Hemoglobin
Contains four globin subunits that each contain a heme group
In the lungs, the relatively higher oxygen concentration, cooler temperature and higher pH causes hemoglobin to readily bind oxygen
In tissues, the relatively lower oxygen concentration, warmer temperature and lower pH causes it to give up oxygen

20. Red Blood Cell Production
Myeloid stem cells give rise to erythroblasts, which divide many times
As they mature, erythroblasts gain many molecules of hemoglobin and lose their nucleus and most of their organelles
Reticulocytes are released into circulation, where they mature
Mature RBCs live about 120 days
About 2 million RBCs are produced per second to keep RBC count in balance
Erythropoietin:

21. Regulation of Red Blood Cell Production

22. Red Blood Cell Destruction
Destroyed in the liver and spleen by macrophages
Hemoglobin is separated into its components
Globin portion is broken down into amino acids that are recycled by the body
Iron is recovered and returned to the bone marrow for reuse
Heme portion is degraded into bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), which are excreted by the liver

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24. Hemoglobin Breakdown

25. Abnormal RBC counts Anemia: Types of anemia:
Hemolytic – inc. rate of RBC destruction
Sickle-cell – genetic; abnormal hemoglobin
Iron deficiency – low iron intake
Pernicious – lack of vitamin B12
Aplastic – bone marrow damage
Hemorrhagic – blood loss

26. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
Usually larger than RBCs
Nucleated
Translucent unless stained
Not as numerous as RBC’s; about 5,000-11,000 per mm3

27. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Functions include:
Fighting infection
Destroying dead or dying body cells
Recognizing and killing cancerous cells
Derived from stem cells in the red bone marrow
Able to leave the blood stream

28. Mobility of White Blood Cells

29. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Types of white blood cells
Granular leukocytes
Neutrophils
Most abundant
First to respond to an infection
Phagocytic
Eosinophils
Increase in number during parasitic worm infections
Lessen an allergic reaction during an allergic attack

30. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Basophils
Release histamines – dilates blood vessels and causes contraction of smooth muscle
Release heparin – prevents clotting and promotes blood flow

31. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Agranular leukocytes
Lymphocytes
Specific immunity against particular pathogens and their toxins
Recognize and destroy cancer cells
B lymphocytes produce antibodies that will bind to antigens
T lymphocytes attack and destroy any cell with a foreign antigen

32. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Monocytes
Largest of the WBCs
Differentiate into macrophages
Stimulate other WBCs to defend the body

33. Hematopoiesis

34. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), cont.
Abnormal white cell counts
Leukopenia –
Leukocytosis –
Differential white blood cell count –
Mononucleosis – viral infection; large number of abnormal lymphocytes
Leukemia –

35. 11.3 Platelets and Hemostasis
Blood
11.3 Platelets and Hemostasis

36. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Not cellular - they are fragments of megakaryocytes
150, ,000 per mm3 of blood
Lifespan about 10 days

37. Hemostasis
Cessation of bleeding; self-limiting and confined to area of damage
Three events:
Vascular spasm – constriction of a broken blood vessel; platelets also release serotonin
Platelet plug formation
In a broken blood vessel, collagen fibers are exposed
Platelets adhere to collagen and aggregation of platelets results in a platelet plug

38. Hemostasis, cont. 3. Coagulation – blood clotting
Requires many protein clotting factors
Two mechanisms for activation of clotting
Intrinsic mechanism – clotting factors are intrinsic to the blood
Slower than extrinsic mechanism
Initiated when exposed to broken collagen in broken blood vessel wall

39. Hemostasis, cont.
Extrinsic mechanism – clotting factors are extrinsic to the blood (from damaged tissue)
Activated when damaged tissues release tissue thromboplastin
Both intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms are activated simultaneously; their common endpoint is the production of prothrombin activator

40. Hemostasis, cont. Four steps of coagulation:
Prothrombin activator is formed
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
Fibrin threads wind around platelet plug and trap RBCs

41. Process of Hemostasis

42. Hemostasis, cont. Clot retraction
Clot gets smaller as platelets contract
Serum is squeezed from the clot
Serum is plasma minus fibrinogen and prothrombin
Enzyme, plasmin, then breaks down the fibrin network after vessel repair begins

43. Hemostasis, cont. Conditions that prevent unwanted clot formation:
Undamaged tissue
Smooth endothelial lining of blood vessels
Anticoagulants in the blood, e.g. heparin

44. Disorders of Hemostasis
Thrombocytopenia –
Hemophilia –
Thrombus –
Embolus –
Thromboembolism – dislodged clot blocks a blood vessel
Pulmonary thromboembolism
Cerebrovascular accident or stroke

45. 11.4 Blood Typing and Transfusions

46. Blood Typing and Transfusions
Blood Transfusion
Transfer of blood from one individual into another
Blood must be typed so that agglutination does not occur
Agglutination – clumping of red blood cells

47. ABO Blood Groups
Blood groups are based on the presence or absence of inherited antigens on the surface of RBC’s
Type A blood has type A antigen and anti-B antibodies
Type B blood has type B antigen and anti-A antibodies
Type AB blood has both A and B antigens and neither antibody
Type O blood has neither A nor B antigens and both antibodies

48. Types of Blood

49. ABO Blood Groups, cont.
Agglutination occurs if antibodies in the plasma combine with the antigens on the surface of the RBC
Universal donor =
Universal recipient =
Autotransfusion technology and blood substitutes are alternatives to matching blood types

50. Cross-matching Before a Blood Transfusion

51. Transfusions

52. Rh Blood Groups
If the Rh factor is present on the surface of RBC’s, the individual is Rh+; if not, they are Rh-
Rh- individuals do not make antibodies against the Rh factor until they are exposed to it either through a transfusion or by carrying an Rh+ baby

53. Rh Blood Groups, cont. Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
First pregnancy in an Rh- mother with an Rh+ fetus is safe; but in subsequent pregnancies with an Rh+ baby, HDN may occur
Severe anemia may occur, and bilirubin can lead to brain damage or death
Prevented by giving Rh- women an Rh immunoglobulin injection (RhoGAM), which has anti-Rh antibodies that attack fetal RBC’s that entered mother’s blood (before production of anti-Rh antibodies)

54. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

55. Blood
11.5 Effects of Aging

56. Effects of Aging Anemias increase Iron deficiency anemia
Pernicious anemia
Leukemia increases
Clotting disorders, such as thromboembolism increase
Associated with arteriosclerosis
May be controlled by diet and exercise