1. Chapter 12 – DNA Chapter 13 – RNA and Protein Synthesis

2. Proof that DNA Controls Traits
Living bacteria and dead bacteria killed mouse
Harmless bacteria picked up DNA from harmful bacteria – changed into harmful bacteria

3. Solving the Structure of DNA
Chargaff’s Rule – Percentages of adenine = thymine, percentages of guanine = cytosine.
Rosalind Franklin – used X-ray diffraction
X-shaped pattern showed shape
1952
Watson and Crick
James Watson – American biologist
Francis Crick – British physicist
The clues in Franklin’s X-ray pattern enabled Watson and Crick to build a model that explained the specific structures and properties of DNA – 1953

4. DNA Structure
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid – a nucleic acid made up of nucleotides joined into long strands or chains by covalent bonds.
Nucleotides – three basic components: a 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Nitrogenous bases – Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine

6. Features: Two main sides – ladder Double-helix structure
Four nitrogen bases – A,T,C,G
A always pairs with T
C always pairs with G
DNA polymerase – an enzyme that joins individual nucleotides to produce a new strand of DNA.

7. DNA and Chromosomes

8. How DNA Works
The order of nitrogen bases, A, T, C, and G, is the coded message
A – T
C - G
The order of the bases can be slightly different and cause traits to be very different
Sickle cell anemia
Nitrogen bases make new messages – similar to the alphabet
Letters w, o, and l form the word owl. They also form the word low.

9. How DNA Copies Itself DNA ready to make a copy of itself
Molecule opens up in middle
DNA polymerase molecule runs along original DNA strand. Loose nitrogen bases are present in nucleus. DNA polymerase joins bases on the open rungs. A pairs with T and C pairs with G.
Two DNA molecules form. They are exactly alike.

11. Comparing RNA and DNA Three important differences:
The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
RNA is single-stranded.
RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.

12. Functions of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carry information from DNA to other parts of the cell.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Make up ribosomes, where proteins are made.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by the coded messages in mRNA.

14. Making Proteins Where are proteins made?
Ribosomes
How can DNA in the nucleus control what happens at the ribosomes?
RNA – ribonucleic acid – a chemical that acts as a messenger for DNA
Carries coded DNA message from nucleus to ribosomes
Transcription – the process of making RNA from a DNA template

15. Making Proteins RNA arrives at ribosomes, and must be decoded.
Translation – the synthesis of a protein from an mRNA template
Once message is translated, protein is made.
Kinds of proteins determine traits you have.

16. Protein Examples Protein Function Examples
Effect if Protein is Missing
Enzyme
Enzyme for synthesizing melanin (pigment that gives our skin and hair color)
Albinism (very pale skin and hair)
Lactase (breaks down lactose)
Lactose intolerance (difficulty digesting milk)
Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (breaks down acetaldehyde, a harmful product of alcohol metabolism)
Alcohol sensitivity (skin flushing and unpleasant symptoms after drinking alcohol)
Transport
Hemoglobin
(protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen in the blood)
Sickle cell anemia
Clotting
Hemophilia (excessive bleeding)

17. The Genetic Code
Polypeptides – proteins are made by joining amino acids together into long chains.
The genetic code is read three “letters” at a time, so that each “word” is three bases long and corresponds to a single amino acid.
Codon – each three-letter “word” in mRNA.
Anticodon – each tRNA molecule has three unpaired bases. Complementary to one mRNA codon.

18. Mutations Any change in copying the DNA message
Bases A, T, C, and G may join incorrectly
Point mutations – occur at a single point in the DNA sequence.
Substitutions – one base changed to a different base.
Insertions and Deletions – one base inserted or removed.
Also called frameshift mutations – shift the “reading frame” of the genetic message. Change every amino acid that follows the point of the mutation.

20. Effects of Mutations
Mutagens – chemical and physical agents in the environment.
Pesticides, tobacco smoke, X-rays, UV light
Harmful and Helpful Mutations –
Sickle cell disease – disorder associated with changes in the shape of red blood cells.
Beneficial – mosquitoes becoming pesticide resistant.

22. Who was Rosalind Franklin?
What does DNA stand for?
What are the four nitrogen bases? What pairs together?
In what three differences between DNA and RNA?
What are the three types are RNA and what are their functions?
Where are proteins made?
What is transcription?
What is translation?
What are polypeptides?
What is a codon?
What is a substitution mutation?
What is an insertion or deletion mutation? What are they also known as?
What is a mutagen?