1. Memory
Memory: persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information.
Gives us our sense of self and connects us to past experiences.

2. 3. RETRIEVAL We seek information from long-term memory storage.
If you didn’t succeed in retrieving all seven, you are in good company. Most people can’t do this task easily. And that’s very helpful because we can use the results to demonstrate some important features of remembering and forgetting. A simplified model of remembering involves a three-stage process:
1. ENCODING
To become a memory, information must first be registered in sensory memory –
it must stand out among a variety of stimuli and be selected for further processing.
2. STORAGE When we rehearse short-term memories sufficiently, we encode them for placement in long-term memory.
3. RETRIEVAL We seek information from long-term memory storage.

3. Three Stage Processing Model of Encoding
Stage One: The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system is referred to as sensory memory.
Stage Two: sensory memories are processed into short term memory your activated memory which can only hold a minimal amount of information.
Stage Three: short term memories are encoded into long-term memory, the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse from which we retrieve.

4. Types of Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory: refers to the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. All information is held here briefly (1/2 to 4 seconds)
Sensory Memories include both:
Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli. Memory only lasts for a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory for auditory stimuli. Sound memories can usually last up to 3 or 4 seconds.
Sensory memory is very hard to measure since it fades as we try to measure it.

5. George Sperling’s Experiment to Measure Iconic Memory

6. How Does Sensory Memory Get Processed Into Memory?
Sensory memories disappear unless you focus your selective attention on the information.
Attention causes information to be further processed.
What does this say about subliminal messages?

7. Sensory Memory Becomes Short-Term Memory
What are characteristics of Short-Term Memory?
Only through rehearsal do short-term memories become long term memories.

8. Process of Encoding: 2 Types
Effortful
Automatic

9. Types of Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards

10. Automatic Processing: Reading Backwards
Reading backwards requires effort at first but after practice becomes automatic.
.citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE
Automatic processing allows us to do multiple things at once and re-illustrates the concept of parallel processing.

11. Effortful Processing
Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing historical events/chronology, etc.
Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal: simple rote repetition of information in consciousness or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal: processing of information for meaning which can more easily help produce long term memories.

12. King of Memory Experiments is Hermann Ebbinghaus
Wanted to research capacity of verbal memory.
Looked to study to see capacity of peoples’ memories to study strings of non-sense syllables.
Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR,

13. Findings of Ebbinghaus
1. Practice makes perfect. The more rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal it took to learn the syllables again on day 2. Overlearning increased retention.
2. The Spacing Effect: the tendency for studying over a long period of time produces better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING!!!

14. Findings of Ebbinghaus
3. Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Ex:

15. Explaining the Serial Position Effect
Primacy Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when reviewing.
Recency Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY.
MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

16. Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Types of Encoding
Semantic Encoding: encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words….yields best memory.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words….usually the least effective.
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.

17. “I studied for FOREVER and I still failed!”

18. MNEMONICS ROY G BIV Every Good Boy Does Fine HOMES
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally

19. REHEARSAL
practice saying and writing the words over and over but, of course, the most effective rehearsal is distributed

20. But what if you have to remember more than that?
SHORT-TERM Memory
The magic number is 7+or –2
In other words, the most we can hold in our short term stores is just 5-9 items!
But what if you have to remember more than that?

21. group like things together
CHUNKING
group like things together
How do you remember a phone #?
You CHUNK it!

22. make it VISUAL HUMANISM –a psychological approach that focuses on
So when you see the word “humanism” I tell you to think about:
I want you to remember:
HUMANISM –a psychological approach that focuses on
free will
Free Willy!

23. METHOD OF LOCI
Imagine the route from your room to the front door of your house
Place people / events along the way
George Washington is in my bedroom
John Adams is right outside my bedroom door
Thomas Jefferson is in the bathroom
James Madison is at the top of the stairs

24. make it MEANINGFUL Whose phone numbers do you remember? Why?
Make all kinds of material meaningful.

25. make it RHYTHMIC “Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue in 1492”
The helping verbs
“The THALAMUS is a grand station, it sends and receives information.”

26. Is Long Term Memory Like an Attic?
Sherlock Holmes: “I consider that a man’s brain is like a little empty attic, and you have to stock it with such furniture as you choose…It is a mistake to think that that little room has elastic walls and can distend to any extent. Depend upon it, there comes a time when for every addition of knowledge you forget something you knew before.”
Is this true?

27. Neural Basis and Emotional Impact For Memory
Long Term Potentiation (LTP): refers to the long-lasting strengthening of the connection between 2 neurons. Is believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory.
Process occurs naturally when we learn through association…after learning has occurred, neurons involved in process become more efficient at transmitting the signals.
Drugs that block LTP affect learning drastically.
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
Stress hormones boost impact on learning.

28. Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory (declarative memory): memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

29. Usually personally meaningful or historically significant.
Vivid Memories
Flashbulb Memories: clear memory of an emotionally significant event or moment.
Usually personally meaningful or historically significant.

30. Types of Memories
Episodic Memory: refers to your specific memory of events that occur in your life.

31. Types of Memories
Semantic Memory: General knowledge – facts you learn at school.

32. Hippocampus’s Role in Explicit Memory
Hippocampus: neural center located in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage….left and right hippocampus have different effects.

33. Implicit Memory
Other type of memory storage is known as Implicit Memory (Procedural or Skill Memory): retention of things without conscious recollection.

34. Cerebellum’s Role in Implicit Memory
Cerebellum: helps facilitate associate learning responses ie classical conditioning.
Cutting pathway to the cerebellum makes rabbits unable to learn conditioned responses.

35. Prospective and Retrogressive Memory (NOT IN YOUR BOOK!)
Prospective Memory: remembering to do something in the future
Ex. I need to remember to get my wife an anniversary gift.
Retrospective Memory: remembering you already did something in the past
Ex. I already got my wife an anniversary gift

36. A Diagram For Your Viewing Pleasure
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositions-
classical and
operant
conditioning
effects

37. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.
Ex: Fill in the Blank.

38. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.
Ex: Multiple Choice

39. Retrieval Cues
Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory.

40. Retrieval Cues
Context Effects Memory Retrieval: able to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in.
Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory:
State-Dependent Memory: information is most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.
Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

41. Storage Loss: Amnesia
Amnesia refers to the loss of memory.
Amnesiac patients typically have losses in explicit memory.

42. Types of Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia: type of memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO FORM ANY NEW MEMORIES. Can’t remember anything that has occurred AFTER a traumatic head injury.
Retrograde Amnesia: type of memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO REMEMBER PAST EVENTS. May forget everything that happened BEFORE a traumatic head injury.