CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
CHAPTERS 4,5,6 INFANCY 4.PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 5. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 6. SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

I. PHYSICAL CHANGES During infancy, babies grow 25 to 30 centimetres and triple their body weight in the first year At about age 2 for girls and age 2½ for boys, toddlers are half as tall as they will be as adults Two-year-olds have proportionately much larger heads than do adults—needed to hold their nearly full-sized brains Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. The Brain and the Nervous System
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY A. The Brain and the Nervous System Synaptic Development Synaptogenesis (creation of synapses) is followed by a period of synaptic pruning to make the nervous system more efficient Neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to reorganize neural pathways and connections Myelinization: Myelin gradually covers individual axons and electrically insulates them from one another, improving the conductivity of the nerve Reticular formation: the part of the brain that regulates attention isn’t fully myelinized until the mid-20’s Synapses: connections between neurons Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Parts of the Human Brain Developed At and After Birth
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Parts of the Human Brain Developed At and After Birth Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Infant Reflexes Adaptive reflexes, such as sucking, help newborns survive; some adaptive reflexes persist throughout life Primitive reflexes are controlled by primitive parts of the brain; these reflexes disappear by about 6 months of age REFLEX DESCRIPTION Babinski When the sole of the foot is stroked, the infant’s toes fan out and up. This reflex disappears around 12 months. Grasping When an object touches the palm of the hand, the infant grasps it. This reflex is strong for the first few months and becomes a voluntary response by 5 months. Moro A sudden noise or loss of support causes the infant to arch the back and throw the arms and legs out and then bring them back in. This reflex disappears after 4 or 5 months. Plantar An infant curls his toes under when an object is pressed under them. This reflex disappears by 12 months. Rooting A soft touch on her cheek will cause an infant to turn toward the touch and open her mouth in an attempt to suck. This reflex disappears by 3 months. Tonic neck When an infant is placed on her back with her head to one side, she will extend the arm and leg on that side and flex the opposite arm and leg. This reflex looks like a fencing position and disappears by 4 months. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

C. Infant Behavioural States
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY C. Infant Behavioural States States of Consciousness: Patterns of sleep and wakefulness stabilize with age Neonates sleep 80% of the time; by 8 weeks babies begin to sleep through the night; by 6 months sleeping 14 hours per day; clear nighttime patterns and daytime naps are established Cries Basic cry signals hunger – rhythmical pattern Anger cry – louder and more intense Pain cry – very abrupt onset Crying increases until 6 weeks then tapers off; prompt attention to crying in first 3 months leads to less crying later Colic: intense daily bouts of crying, totalling 3 or more hours a day for several months Refer to Table 4.1 (next slide) page 97 Considerable variation exists to create these average numbers Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

D. Developing Body Systems
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY D. Developing Body Systems Bones: increases in length of long bones underlie increases in height; changes in number and density of bones are responsible for improved coordination Ossification: the process of hardening of bones begins during prenatal development & continues through puberty Muscles: muscle fibres are virtually all present at birth; muscles are initially small and have a high ratio of water to muscle; high fat content declines to adult levels by age 1 Lungs and Heart: improvements in lung efficiency and increasing strength of heart muscles provide the two-year-old with greater stamina than that of the newborn Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

E. Developing Motor Skills
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY E. Developing Motor Skills Motor Skills: Locomotor (gross motor) – crawling; Nonlocomotor - controlling head movements; Manipulative (fine motor control) – using hands & fingers Motor Skill Development: virtually all children follow the same sequence of motor skill development; developmentally delayed children just do so more slowly; experience in normal environments influences motor development Gender Differences: girls are ahead over boys during infancy with a slight advantage in manipulative skills; boys have more developmental delays, have higher mortality rates, have clear preference for rough and tumble play, are more aggressive than girls by the end of the second year Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Milestones of Motor Development in the First Two Years
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Milestones of Motor Development in the First Two Years Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

F. Health Promotion and Wellness
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY F. Health Promotion and Wellness Nutrition: breast-feeding is substantially superior nutritionally to bottle-feeding & stimulates better immune system functioning ; preterm babies need extra supplementation to augment breast milk Macronutrient malnutrition: diet containing too few calories; leading cause of death in children under 5 Micronutrient Malnutrition: diet deficient in certain vitamins and/or minerals; most common form of malnutrition in industrialized countries; Canada is an exception due to food fortification of the past 50 years Health Care and Immunizations: infants need frequent medical check-ups & a routine immunization protocol Refer to “Development in the Real World: Nutrition From Birth to One Year” on page 101 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

G. Preterm and Post-term Infants
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY G. Preterm and Post-term Infants Preterm infants: born before 37 weeks of gestation; move more slowly through the developmental milestones; the physically normal preterm baby will catch up with peers Post-term infants: born 42 weeks or more after conception; have increased risk of mortality Refer to Figure 4.2 (next slide) Page 104 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

H. Infant Mortality In Canada
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY H. Infant Mortality In Canada Canada’s infant mortality (death within 1st year of life) rate declined from 134 per 1000 live births in 1901 to 5 per 1000 live births in 2006 First Nations and Inuit have rates that are two and four times higher, respectively, than general Canadian population Refer to Figure 4.4 (next slide) page 106 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Infant Mortality in Canada (continued)
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Infant Mortality in Canada (continued) Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): sudden, unexpected death of a healthy infant is the leading cause of death between 29 days and one year of age (over 29% of deaths) In order to reduce the risk of SIDS, parents should: Place the baby on her/his back when s/he sleeps Eliminate quilts, duvets, pillows, soft toys, and crib bumpers that may cover the infant’s head Avoid laying the baby on soft surfaces or on loose bedding Have the baby sleep in a crib or a cot near to the parent’s bed for the first six months Avoid bed sharing or otherwise sleeping or napping with the baby Provide a smoke-free environment during pregnancy and in the home after the infant’s birth Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

II. SENSORY SKILLS Vision: visual acuity is poor at first but develops rapidly and near objects are seen clearly; tracking of a moving object is initially inefficient but improves rapidly; colour vision (red, green and blue present by 1 month, & infants’ ability to sense colour almost identical to adults’) Hearing: auditory acuity nearly as good as in adults; high-pitched noises need to be loud to be heard; infants can locate the direction of some sounds at birth. Smelling & Tasting: smell has nearly unlimited variations; newborns react differently to each basic taste as early as birth. Touch and Motion: best developed of all senses in infants Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Steiner’s Experiments on Taste Response
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Steiner’s Experiments on Taste Response Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

III. PERCEPTUAL SKILLS Newborns have impressive sensory capabilities at birth, but some minimum exposure (experience) to sensory stimuli is required for normal perceptual development Looking: early visual stimulation crucual for normal visual perception; babies initially scan for light/dark contrast; at 2 months scan entire objects to identify things; by 3 – 4 months can find and pay attention to patterns; babies prefer attractive faces, & prefer the mother’s face from the earliest hours of life Listening: at 1 month infants discriminate between single syllables such as pa and ba; at 6 months discriminate between two-syllable words; newborns discriminate mother’s prefer mother’s voice (learned in utero); recognize melody patterns by 6 months Intersensory integration (coordination of information from 2 or more senses) and cross-modal transfer (transfer of information from one sense to another) are required for learning to take place at a normal rate Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

CHAPTER FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
I. COGNITIVE CHANGES Changes in cognitive skills over the first 2 years are highly consistent across environments Two-year-olds are still a long way from cognitive maturity, but they have taken several important steps toward that goal Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage 0-24 Months
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY A. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage 0-24 Months Infants use senses & motor actions to understand world Circular Reactions to progressively gain experience of herself & environment: primary (baby aware of own body reactions); secondary (baby aware of events outside his body; tertiary (baby manipulates objects in new ways) Imitation: infant imitates his own actions he can see making; imitates other people’s facial expressions; begins imitating actions that were not in baby’s repertoire; deferred imitation (a child’s imitation of some action at a later time) begins Object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen By mo. beginnings of mental representation: use of symbols to represent objects or events Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Substages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

B. Empirical Challenges to Piaget’s View
CHAPTER FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY B. Empirical Challenges to Piaget’s View Piaget underestimated cognitive capacity of infants Object permanence occurs much earlier than he predicted: babies as young as 4 months show clear signs of object permanence; most 5 month-olds look to the other side of a screen when a moving object disappears behind it Imitation of facial gestures and deferred imitation occur earlier than Piaget proposed Object Concept: infant’s understanding of the nature of objects and how they behave (such as the support required to keep an object stable) Object Individuation: the process by which infant differentiates and recognizes between distinct objects; Understanding of objects seems to develop gradually over the first 3 years Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Object Concept Example: Object Stability
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Object Concept Example: Object Stability Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

II. LEARNING & MEMORY Research evidence supports the presence of classical & operant conditioning, and observational learning from birth; babies start organizing their interactions with environment into cognitive schemata By 7 mo. infants actively use categories to process information, but cannot process levels of caregories: will respond differently to animals and furniture (superordinate categories) but not to dogs and birds (lower level categories; hierarchical categories appear by 2 years but are not well developed until about age 5 Rovee-Collier showed that 3 month old infants can remember specific objects and their own actions with those objects for as long as a week Early infant memory is strongly tied to context Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

III. BEGINNINGS OF LANGUAGE
CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY III. BEGINNINGS OF LANGUAGE Theoretical perspectives (see next slide) Infant-directed speech (IDS): simplified, higher-pitched speech adults use with infants & young children; helps infants identify the sounds in their mother tongue Early experiences such as being read to often, being talked to often develop richer vocabularies and more complex sentences; poverty influences a substantial gap in vocabulary by age 4 and widens over the school years Cooing vowel sounds appear at about one month, usually to signal pleasure; babbling, with vowel and consonant sounds, develops at about 6 months, and is the beginning of productive language; gesture-sound combinations emerge at about 10 months Receptive language consists of about words babies understand by 9 or 10 months Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. Theoretical Perspectives

First Spoken Words, Vocabulary, Sentences
Expressive language is the ability to produce words: by 12 mo. babies say first words Holophrases: Combining a single word with gestures to make a complete thought (between 12 and 18 months) Naming Explosion occurs between 16 and 24 months, when vocabulary grows in spurts (see next slide) Sentences appear when there is a threshold of 100 to 200 words at 18 – 24 mo.; sentences are simple with 2 or 3 words (telegraphic speech) Understanding telegraphic speech usually requires the listener to know the context

Vocabulary Growth in Infants

Meaning in Early Sentences

Individual Differences in Language Development
CHAPTER FIVE: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Differences in Rate (see next slide): wide range of normal variation; more than half those who talk late eventually catch up; those who do not catch up have receptive language problems, and possibly other cognitive problems, requiring professional help for diagnosis and treatment Differences in Style Expressive style: early vocabulary linked to social relationships rather than objects Referential style: early vocabulary made up of names of things or people; often advanced in understanding adult language Refer to Figure 5.8 (next slide) page 143 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Some Differences Between Expressive and Referential Styles in Early Language

CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives Freud’s Oral stage (from birth to two): infants derive satisfaction through the mouth; emphasis on the symbiotic relationship between the mother and young infant; weaning from the breast and the milk bottle needs to be managed so that the infant’s need to suck is neither frustrated nor over-gratified Erikson’s Trust vs. mistrust stage: importance of responding to the infant’s other needs by talking to and comforting her; infant learns either to trust or mistrust the world around her Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Ethological Perspectives
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY B. Ethological Perspectives John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth Attachment theory: the ability and need to form an attachment relationship early in life are genetic characteristics of all human beings; the majority of parents manage to respond to their infants in ways that foster the development of a close relationship Affectional bond: the emotional tie to an infant experienced by a parent Attachment: the emotional tie to a parent experienced by an infant, from which the child derives security Reactive attachment disorder: a disorder that appears to prevent a child from forming close social relationships See “Research Report: Adoption and Development” on page 150 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant Synchrony: a mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviours shared by a parent and child The father’s bond with the infant is as dependent on the development of synchrony as the mother’s Fathers and mothers interact differently with infants Fathers are less consistent than mothers in responding to infant cues Babies benefit from interactions with both parents Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents (1)
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents (1) Establishing attachment in four phases [Bowlby & Ainsworth]: Nonfocused orienting and signaling phase [0 – 3 months]: infant uses an innate set of behaviour patterns to signal needs and seek proximity with other people Focus on one or more figures phase [3 – 6 months]: infant smiles more at people who regularly care for him but still uses proximity promoting behaviours with many people; Secure base behaviour phase [6 – 24 months]: infant seeks proximity with & uses primary caregiver as a safe base for explorations Internal model phase [24 months and beyond]: infant starts developing internal representations of relationship with primary caregiver, which will serve as a model for other significant relationships later on (Model of primary caregiver; Model of infant self; Model of others) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents (2)
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents (2) Attachment Behaviours: Stranger anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as clinging to the mother, in the presence of strangers Separation anxiety: expressions of discomfort, such as crying, when separated from an attachment figure Social referencing: an infant’s use of others’ facial expressions as a guide to his or her own emotions Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
Attachment Quality Secure attachment: infant readily separates from parent, seeks parent when stressed, uses parent as safe base for exploration Insecure attachments: Avoidant attachment: infant avoids contact with parent, shows no preference for parent over others Ambivalent attachment: infant shows little exploratory behaviour, upset when separated from parent, not reassured by return of parent or efforts of parent to comfort infant Disorganized/disoriented attachment: infant seems confused or apprehensive, shows contradictory behaviours such as moving toward parent while looking away from parent Significant changes in the relationship can change the attachment pattern Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

C. Temperament & Personality
CHAPTER SIX: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY C. Temperament & Personality Temperament: inborn predispositions such as activity level that form the foundations of personality Personality: a pattern of responding to people and objects in the environment Thomas and Chess’ temperament types: 1) the easy child; 2) the difficult child; 3) the slow-to-warm-up child Temperament dimensions include: Activity level: tendency to move often and vigorously Approach/positive emotionality: tendency to move toward new experiences, accompanied by positive emotion Inhibition: tendency to respond with fear/withdrawal in new situations Negative emotionality: tendency to respond with anger, fussing, irritability or a low threshold for frustration Effortful control/task persistence: ability to stay focused and to manage attention and effort Goodness-of-fit is the degree to which an infant’s temperament is adaptable to his or her environment, and vice versa Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

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CHAPTER FOUR: PHYSICAL, SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

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