1. TOPIC 4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND STRUCTURE
4.4
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

2. ESSENTIAL IDEA
The physical properties of molecular substances result from different types of forces between their molecules.
NATURE OF SCIENCE (2.2)
Obtain evidence for scientific theories by making and testing predictions based on them – London dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding can be used to explain special interactions. For example, molecular covalent compounds can exist in the liquid and solid state. To explain this, there must be attractive forces between their particles which are significantly greater than those that could be attributed to gravity.

3. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces are forces within the molecule such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonding.
The strength of intermolecular forces determines the volatility of a substance.
The stronger the forces, the higher the melting and boiling points.

4. UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA 4.4.A
Intermolecular forces include London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding.

5. Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attractions that exist between molecules
The strength of these forces determine:
The state of matter: solid, liquid, or gas
The melting and boiling points of compounds
The solubilities of one substance in another. 5

6. Types of Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces include:
Hydrogen bonding
Dipole to dipole interactions
van der Waals forces or dispersion forces 6

7. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding occurs between polar covalent molecules that possess a hydrogen atom that is bonded to an extremely electronegative element; specifically - N, O, and F.
Weak attractions occur between the hydrogen atoms of one molecule and the oxygen atom of another. 7

8. Hydrogen Bonding
The weak attractions that result form hydrogen bonding cause molecules to stick together.
As a result molecules with significant hydrogen bonding have higher melting points and boiling points than they would otherwise have. 8

9. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonds are the strongest of all of the intermolecular forces. They are about one-tenth the strength of a covalent bond .
Because hydrogen bonds must be overcome for a substance to melt or evaporate, substances that have significant hydrogen bonding have higher than normal melting and boiling temperatures 9

10. Dipole-Dipole Attractions
If the permanent net dipole within the polar molecules results from a covalent bond between a hydrogen atom and either fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen, the resulting intermolecular force is referred to as a hydrogen bond
If this attraction occurs between other polar molecules it is referred to as a dipole to dipole interaction .
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11. Dipole-Dipole Attractions
Dipole-Dipole attractions occur between molecules that have permanent net dipoles. (polar molecules),
The partial positive charge on one molecule is electrostatically attracted to the partial negative charge on a neighboring molecule. .
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12. Dipole-Dipole Attractions
Some examples of molecules with dipole-dipole interactions include:
SCl2
PCl3
CH3Cl . 12

13. van der Waals Forces They result from:
van der Waals or dispersion forces are very weak forces of attraction between molecules
They result from:
momentary dipoles occurring due to uneven electron distributions in neighboring molecules as they approach one another
the weak residual attraction of the nuclei in one molecule for the electrons in a neighboring molecule. 13

14. Dispersion Forces ..
van der Waal's Forces are named after the person who contributed to our understanding of non-ideal gas behavior). They are also as known dispersion forces or as London Forces (named after Fritz London who first described these forces theoretically in 1930) 14

15. Dispersion Forces
The more electrons that are present in the molecule, the stronger the dispersion forces will be.
Dispersion forces are the only type of intermolecular force that operates between non-polar molecules
Dispersion forces exist between non-polar molecules such as
hydrogen (H2)
chlorine (Cl2)
carbon dioxide (CO2)
methane (CH4) 15

16. Dispersion Forces
van der Waals or dispersion forces are the weakest of the intermolecular forces
They are typically only 0.1% to 1% as strong as covalent bonds between atoms in a molecule 16

17. London Dispersion Forces
The van der Waals or London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that occurs when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction.
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18. Effects of London Dispersion Forces
London forces are the attractive forces that cause non-polar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently.
Phase changes occur when molecules are sufficiently close and dispersion forces are sufficiently strong to hold molecules together

19. Let us look at the summery

20. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces .
Substances held together with London dispersion forces have low melting and boiling points and are often gases at room temperatures.
These forces occur when electron clouds shift to form temporary dipoles which then induce dipoles in neighboring molecules so that they can attract each other.
The larger the electron cloud, the stronger the London dispersion forces because there is a higher probability of temporary dipoles forming.

21. London dispersion forces are responsible for the fact that non-polar molecules can be condensed to form liquids and sometimes solids.
London dispersion forces are also present in polar molecules but are often overlooked because they are so much weaker than dipole-dipole forces.

22. DIPOLE-DIPOLE ATTRACTION
These are stronger than London dispersion forces and the strength depends upon the degree of polarity.
These intermolecular forces are caused when molecules with permanent dipoles (areas of pos/neg charge) attract each other.
The stronger the dipole attraction – the higher the boiling point.

23. HYDROGEN BONDING This is the strongest of the intermolecular forces .
Hydrogen bonding is a type of dipole-dipole attraction.
Hydrogen bonds form when hydrogen bonds to either nitrogen, fluorine or oxygen.
The strength of the hydrogen bond is due to the small size of hydrogen and the large electronegativity of N, O and F.
Water is a unique substance with hydrogen bonding in that the solid is less dense than the liquid.

24. UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA 4.4.B
The relative strengths of these interactions are London dispersion forces < dipole-dipole forces < hydrogen bonds.

25. APPLICATION/SKILLS
Be able to deduce the types of intermolecular forces present in substances, based on their structure and chemical formula.

26. GUIDANCE
The term “London dispersion forces” refers to instantaneous induced dipole- induced dipole forces that exist between any atoms or groups of atoms and should be used for non-polar entities. The term “van der Waals forces” is an inclusive term, which includes dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and London dispersion forces.

27. All molecules will have some type of van der Waal’s force.
Non-polar molecules have only London dispersion forces.
Polar molecules have dipole-dipole forces and London dispersion forces.
Hydrogen bonding exists when the positive hydrogen bonds with lone pairs of electrons on nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.

28. van der Waals’ forces
The umbrella term “van der Waals’ forces is used to include both London dispersion forces and dipole-dipole attractions. It also covers the less common type of attraction known as the dipole-induced dipole.
It refers to all forces between molecules that do not involve electrostatic attractions between ions or bond formation.
London Dispersion Force: Cl2 – Cl2
Dipole – Dipole attraction: HCl – HCl
Dipole-induced dipole: HCl – Cl2

29. APPLICATION/SKILLS
Be able to explain the physical properties of covalent compounds (volatility, electrical conductivity, and solubility) in terms of their structure and intermolecular forces.

30. Volatility, solubility and conductivity can all be predicted and explained from knowledge of the nature of the forces between molecules.

31. VOLATILITY
The weaker the intermolecular force, the higher the volatility.
London dispersion > dipole-dipole > hydrogen bonding
Ionic compounds and giant covalent compounds have low volatility.
Ionic, giant covalent< polar covalent < non polar

32. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Covalent compounds do not contain ions; therefore, they do not conduct electricity in the solid or liquid state.
Some polar covalent compounds, such as HCl which can ionize in water, will conduct electricity.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state.
Giant covalent structures are generally non-conductors except for graphite, graphene, fullerene and Si.

33. SOLUBILITY Non-polar compounds dissolve in non-polar solvents.
Polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents.
Solubility is reduced in larger molecules where the polar bond is only part of the total structure.
Ionic compounds are very soluble in water and non-soluble in non-polar solvents.
Giant covalent structures are non-soluble in both polar and non-polar solvents due to the very strong covalent bonds within their structure.

34. BOILING/MELTING POINT COMPARISON
The stronger the force, the higher the boiling and melting points.
Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > London dispersion forces