1. Chapter 6: States of Consciousness

2. Some Early Definitions
Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of in any instant
Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear, organized, alertness
Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity

3. Sleep
Innate, biological rhythm
Microsleep: Brief shift in brain-wave patterns similar to those during sleep

4. Figure 6. 4 Development of sleep patterns
Figure 6.4 Development of sleep patterns. Short cycles of sleep and waking gradually become the night-day cycle of an adult. While most adults don’t take naps, midafternoon sleepiness is a natural part of the sleep cycle. (After Williams et al., 1964.)
Figure 6.4

5. Sleep Problems
Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep
Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss
Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking

6. Rhythms
Circadian Rhythms: Bodily changes that occur every 24 hours
Biological Rhythm: Any repeating cycle of biological activity

7. Jet Lag
Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west
Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation
Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag
MUCH easier to go from east to west, than west to east
Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule

8. Measuring Sleep Changes
Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain
Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with being alert and awake
Alpha Waves: Large, slow brainwaves associated with relaxation and falling asleep

9. Stage 1 Sleep
Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep)
Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction

10. Stages of Sleep, Part 1

11. Stage 2 Sleep
Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear

12. Stages of Sleep, Part 2

13. Stage 3 Sleep
Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slow

14. Stages of Sleep, Part 3

15. Stage 4 Sleep
Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves

16. Stages of Sleep, Part 4

17. Figure 6.3 Sleep rhythms. Bars show periods of sleep during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of an experiment with a human subject. During unscheduled periods, the subject was allowed to select times of sleep and lighting. The result was a sleep rhythm of about 25 hours. Notice how this free-running rhythm began to advance around the clock as the person fell asleep later each day. When periods of darkness (shaded area) were imposed during the fifth week, the rhythm quickly resynchronized with 24-hour days. (Adapted from Czeisler, 1981.)
Figure 6.3

18. Two Basic Kinds of Sleep
Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light
Body is very still during REM sleep
Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM Behavioral Disorder

19. Stages of Sleep, Part 5

20. Non-REM (NREM) Sleep
Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs
Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue
EEG patterns return to Stage 1

21. Stages of Sleep, Part 6

22. Figure 6.8 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.
Figure 6.8

23. Some Sleep Disturbances
Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep
Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency
Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills

24. Types and Causes of Insomnia
Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement
Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until you’re struggling to stay awake

25. Some More Sleep Concerns
Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks
Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same time each night, for example
Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that produces sleep

26. Sleep Disturbances
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4
Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep

27. Some Other Sleep Disturbances
Nightmares: Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep
May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily remembered
Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares

28. Night Terrors
Night Terrors: Total panic and often hallucinations of frightening dream images may occur
Occurs during Stage 4 sleep
Most common in childhood; may occur in adults
Not remembered

29. Physiological Sleep Problems
Sleep Apnea: Repeated interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring
Hypersomnia: Extreme daytime sleepiness
Apnea can be treated by
Surgery
Weight loss
Breathing mask

30. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)
Also known as Crib Death

31. Dreams
Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces
Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires
Much evidence to refute this
Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning

32. Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain during sleep that are not carried out

33. Hypnosis
Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion
Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)
Must cooperate to become hypnotized

34. Hypnotic Susceptibility
How easily a person can be hypnotized
Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary

35. Table 6.2
Table 6.2

36. Hypnosis Can
Help people relax
Reduce pain
Get people to make better progress in therapy

37. Hypnosis Cannot
Produce acts of superhuman strength
Produce age regression
Force you to do things against your will

38. Stage Hypnosis
Simulation of hypnotic effects, done to entertain

39. Tricks of the Hypnosis Trade
Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction
Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the stage group and does not follow instructions is removed
The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!

40. More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade”
Hypnotist as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it; the hypnotist only needs to direct them
Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation
Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize

41. Meditation
Mental exercise designed to focus attention and interrupt flow of thoughts, worries, and analyses
Concentrative Meditation: Attention is paid to a single focal point (i.e., object, thought, etc.)
Produces relaxation response and thus works to reduce stress
Receptive Meditation: Based on widening attention span to become aware of everything experienced at a given moment

42. More on Meditation
Mantra: Word(s) or sound(s) repeated silently during concentrative meditation
Relaxation Response: Occurs at time of relaxation; innate physiological pattern that opposes body’s fight or flight responses

43. Sensory Deprivation (SD)
Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation
Benefits
Sensory enhancement
Relaxation
Changing habits
Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy

44. Figure 6. 12 A sensory isolation chamber
Figure 6.12 A sensory isolation chamber. Small flotation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epsom salts, so that people float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation produces deep relaxation.
Figure 6.12

45. Mindfulness
Open, nonjudgmental awareness of current experience

46. Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception
Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system
Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system

47. Dependence
Physical Dependence: Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a drug
Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of the drug
Psychological Dependence: Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs

48. Figure 6. 13 Spectrum and continuum of drug action
Figure 6.13 Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can be rated on a stimulation-depression scale according to their effects on the central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are listed here, the stimulation-depression scale is less relevant to these drugs. The principal characteristic of such hallucinogens is their mind-altering quality.
Figure 6.13

49. Stimulants
Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system
Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two types of stimulants
Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions

50. Interaction of Dopamine and Amphetamines

51. Cocaine
Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anesthetic
From , Coca-Cola did indeed have cocaine in it!
Highly addictive drug
Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure): Common after cocaine withdrawal

52. Interaction of Dopamine and Cocaine

53. MDMA (Ecstasy)
Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in a drug’s structure
May cause severe liver damage and fatal heat exhaustion
Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells

54. Caffeine
Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea
Causes tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness
May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively; may cause birth defects

55. Caffeinism
Physiological dependence on caffeine
Symptoms include: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature

56. Nicotine
Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco; known carcinogen
In large doses it causes stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors
Addictive
Smoking responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women
Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)

57. Understanding Addiction

58. Sedatives
Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity
Seconal and Amytal are two types

59. Interaction of GABA and Barbiturates

60. GHB
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner
Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness
Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit
Addictive and deadly

61. Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension
Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are four types
Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication; larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep
Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless (“Roofies”)

62. Drug Interaction
One drug increases the effect of another

63. Alcohol
Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors
NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitions
Depressant

64. Binge Drinking
Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women
Serious sign of alcohol abuse
May lead to up to 10 percent loss of brain power, especially memory

65. How a Drinking Problem may Develop (Jellinek, 1960)
Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good
Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking
Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent

66. Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence
Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term treatment begins

67. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover
Spiritual component
Free; around for over 70 years!
Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternatives

68. Table 6.3a
Table 6.3a

69. Table 6.3b
Table 6.3b

70. Some Hallucinogens
Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory impressions
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and psychotic disturbances in thinking and perception

71. Some More Hallucinogens
Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects

72. Marijuana (Pot)
Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant
Active chemical: THC
Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual distortions
Psychologically, NOT physiologically, addictive

73. Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana
Can cause precancerous changes in lung cells
Can suppress immune system, increasing risk of disease
Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users
Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers

74. Dream Interpretation
Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true meanings of dreams

75. Condensation
Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image

76. Displacement
Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images

77. Symbolization
Non-literal expression of dream content

78. Secondary Elaboration
Making a dream more logical and adding details while remembering it

79. Perls’ Views on Dreams
Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own
Dreams fill in gaps in our personal experience

80. Lucid Dreaming
Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action