1. Chapter 8 Adolescence Child Development A Cultural Approach
Copyright © 2017, Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

2. Learning Objectives (1 of 5)
8.1 List the physical changes that begin puberty and summarize the surprising changes in brain development during adolescence. 8.2 Describe the normative timing of pubertal events, cultural variations, and how being early or late influences emotional and social development. 8.3 Identify the main gender differences in puberty rituals worldwide. 8.4 Describe the prevalence, symptoms, and treatment of eating disorders. 8.5 Classify adolescent substance use into four categories.

3. Learning Objectives (2 of 5)
8.6 Explain the features of hypothetical-deductive reasoning and identify critiques of Piaget’s theory of formal operations. 8.7 Summarize the major changes in attention and memory that take place from middle childhood to adolescence. 8.8 Define the imaginary audience and the personal fable and explain how they reflect egocentrism in adolescence. 8.9 Produce an example of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding involving adolescents.

4. Learning Objectives (3 of 5)
8.10 Describe why the transition to secondary schools may be challenging for adolescents, and identify some factors influencing high school graduation and dropout rates 8.11 Compare and contrast the secondary education systems and academic performance of developed countries and developing countries Summarize the typical forms of adolescent work in developing countries and developed countries, and name the features of apprenticeships in Europe Summarize the results of the ESM studies with respect to adolescent emotionality.

5. Learning Objectives (4 of 5)
8.14 Describe how self conceptions change during adolescence 8.15 Discriminate between Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and Jensen’s worldviews theory Describe the cultural variations in religious beliefs during adolescence as well as the sources and outcomes of religiosity within cultures Summarize the cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family Describe cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with friends, and characterize their interactions with peers.

6. Learning Objectives (5 of 5)
8.19 Identify cultural variations in adolescent love and sexuality, including variations in adolescent pregnancy and contraceptive use Explain the function of media use in adolescents’ lives and apply the Media Practice Model to the playing of electronic games Summarize the explanations for why age and crime are so strongly correlated, and describe the multisystemic approach to combating delinquency Identify the different types and rates of depression and summarize the most effective treatments Define resilience and name the protective factors that are related to resilience in adolescence.

7. Physical Development

8. Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (1 of 3)
Puberty is a time period of rapid biological growth
Hormonal changes associated with percentage of body fat
Estrogen – estradiol production 8 times higher in females
Androgens – testosterone is 20 times higher in males

9. Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (2 of 3)
Primary sex characteristics – directly related to reproduction
Secondary sex characteristics – other bodily changes due to hormonal increases
Girls experience menarche (first menstrual period)
Boys experience spermarche (first ejaculation)

10. Biological Changes of Puberty: The Physical Changes of Puberty (3 of 3)
Exuberance and synaptic pruning
Especially concentrated in the frontal lobes
Myelination encourages efficiency in thought
Cerebellum continues to grow

11. Figure 8.2 Hormonal Changes in Puberty
Girls and boys follow very different hormonal paths at this life stage.

12. Figure 8.3 Timing of the Physical Changes of Puberty

13. The Timing of Puberty (1 of 3)
Girls begin puberty about two years earlier than boys
Cultural differences
Kikuyu – boys show puberty before females
Chinese – girls develop pubic hair after breast buds (counter to Western pattern)
African American – girls develop breast buds and pubic hair earlier than white girls

14. The Timing of Puberty (2 of 3)
Technology in food production and medical care influence puberty
Age of menarche has decreased in Western countries
Secular trend
Average age of menarche is lowest in industrialized countries
In rapidly developing countries a decline is seen in recent decades after development

15. The Timing of Puberty (3 of 3)
Early maturation
Girls – depressed mood, negative body image, eating disorders
Boys – favorable body image, higher popularity, earlier delinquency
Later maturation may be more negative for boys with fewer problems for girls

16. Figure 8.4 The Secular Trend in Age of Menarche
Why did age of reaching menarche decline?

17. Cultural Responses: Puberty Rituals
Puberty rituals mark a transition
Girls
Menstrual blood may be considered dangerous to crops, livestock, and people
Boys
May be required to show feats of courage, strength, or pain endurance
Circumcision
Discuss the view of male and female circumcision worldwide

18. Eating Disorders (1 of 3)
Anorexia – eating disorder characterized by intentional self-starvation
Inability to maintain body weight
Fear of weight gain
Lack of menstruation
Distorted body image

19. Eating Disorders (2 of 3) Bulimia
Fear of weight gain
Engage in binge eating then purge
Can damage teeth from repeated vomiting
Tend to maintain normal weight and recognize abnormal eating patterns
Eating disorders are more common in cultures that emphasize slimness

20. Eating Disorders (3 of 3)
Treatment options: hospitalization, medication, or psychotherapy
Effectiveness:
one-third of individuals treated for anorexia remain ill
one-half of individuals treated for bulimia relapse
continuing problems as individuals dealing with these disorders age

21. Substance Use (1 of 2)
Substance use rare before adolescence and common by the end of adolescence
Rates of marijuana use by seniors higher than cigarettes
Substance use higher in Native American and lowest in African American and Asian Americans
Teenage substance use has gone down in comparison to previous generations

22. Substance Use (2 of 2)
Reasons for substance use among adolescents are varied
experimental
social
Medicinal
Self medication
addictive

23. Figure 8.5 Substance Use in Western Countries (1 of 2)
Why are rates of alcohol and cigarette use low in the United States and Canada?

24. Figure 8.5 Substance Use in Western Countries (2 of 2)

25. Cognitive Development

26. Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations
Involves ability to think scientifically
Hypothetical Deductive reasoning
Pendulum problem is used to demonstrate ability
Formal operations allows one to solve the pendulum problem-changing one variable while keeping one constant

27. Figure 8.6 Pendulum Problem
How does performance on this task test formal operations

28. Critiques of Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations
Individual differences
Not seen in every instance of teen life
Adolescents with math and science exhibit it more
Cultural differences
Traditional Piagetian tasks show little success
Success if task relevant to culture

29. Information Processing: Attention and Metamemory
Adolescents improve on attention tasks
Selective attention – focus on relevant information
Divided attention – two things at once but learning is still detrimentally affected
Memory also improves
Use of memory strategies (mnemonic devices)
Experience and knowledge is enhancing
Development of metacognition

30. Social Cognition: Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable
Adolescent egocentrism has two aspects
Imaginary audience
Leads to feeling of self-consciousness
Personal fable
Can lead to anguish and high-risk behavior
Go in more detail with examples for each term

31. Culture and Cognition Lev Vygotsky
Zone of proximal development – difference between skills or tasks a person can accomplish alone and those they can do with guidance
Scaffolding – the degree of assistance provided in the zone of proximal development
Learning always takes place via a social process
Go in more detail with examples for each term

32. Secondary Education in the US
Education in adolescence centers around secondary schools
Transition from elementary to middle can add to anxiety
Perception of teacher support declines
High schools can prepare teens with basic skills
High school completion rates vary between ethnic groups

33. Figure 8.7 U.S. High School Completion Rate by Ethnic Group

34. Secondary Education Worldwide (1 of 2)
International variations in secondary schools (middle and high schools)
Enrollment
In developed countries is the norm
Ethnic minorities from low-income families have substantially lower completion rates than the majority culture
Go into detail in comparing comprehensive schools and non-comprehensive schools
Explain in detail developing countries’ struggles

35. Secondary Education Worldwide (2 of 2)
School types
Comprehensive schools – one institution as source of secondary education, as in the U.S.
Europe has three types – college preparatory, vocational school, and professional school
Developing countries it is difficult to attend secondary schools
Gender differences and rising enrollments but insufficient funding and lack of teachers
Go into detail in comparing comprehensive schools and non-comprehensive schools
Explain in detail developing countries’ struggles

36. Map 8.1 Secondary School Enrollment Worldwide
Which countries have the highest enrollment rates for secondary education? Which are the lowest? What cultural and economic factors might explain these variations?

37. Figure 8.8 International Performance in Reading and Math, 8th Grade
Go into detail explaining international performance differences.
What explains why Japan scores highest?

38. Work (1 of 2) Developing countries Work in developed countries
Work begins in early or middle childhood and continues
Prostitution on rise especially in Asia
Many ways it can occur
Work in developed countries
Not related to family support
Could negatively impact development
Increased hours could lower grades

39. Work (2 of 2) European countries have tradition of apprenticeship
Common in central and northern Europe
Entry at age 16
Continued part-time schooling
Training that takes place in workplace
Preparation for a career in a respected profession

40. Emotional and Social Development

41. Emotional and Self-Development: Storm and Stress
Adolescence thought to be a time of storm and stress
Experience Sampling Method (ESM) has shown that
In the U.S. it is a time of emotional volatility
Self-conscious, embarrassed, moody, lonely, and nervous
Source of distress a combination of cognitive and environmental factors
Transitions coupled with how events are interpreted contribute to volatility

42. Figure 8.9 Change in Emotional States During Adolescence
Use figure to complete previous slide and how emotional states change.
Limited cross cultural evidence
Average emotional state becomes steadily more negative in the course of adolescence.

43. Self Understanding and Concept
Adolescent self-conceptions become complex
Composed of:
Actual self – true self-conception
Possible self – what you could become
Ideal self – would like to be
Feared self – possible to become but fear becoming it
False self – what is shown to others
Discrepancy between actual self and ideal self can lead to feelings of failure and depression
Self-esteem tends to fluctuate during adolescence

44. Self-Esteem Self-esteem composed of many dimensions
Susan Harter investigated eight domains of influence on adolescent self-image
Domains of importance to most adolescents are:
Physical appearance
Social acceptance
Tend to affect self-esteem the most especially in girls

45. Gender Intensification (1 of 2)
Adolescence is an important time for gender socialization, especially for girls
Gender intensification hypothesis
Research has been shown to support hypothesis
From sixth to eighth grade, boys’ and girls’ self-descriptions became more gender- stereotyped

46. Gender Intensification (2 of 2)
Gender intensification higher in traditional cultures
Boys
Achieve manhood by providing, protecting, and procreating
Girls
Demonstrate womanhood but it is inevitable and cannot fail
Gender roles may be changing over time through globalization

47. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (1 of 2)
Kohlberg proposed a universal theory of moral development
His focus was on the structure of moral reasoning
Studied the moral judgments of 72 middle- class boys

48. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (2 of 2)
Preconventional
Stage 1 – Punishment and obedience
Stage 2 – Individualism and purpose
Conventional
Stage 3 – Interpersonal concordance
Stage 4 – Social systems
Postconventional
Stage 5 – Community rights
Stage 6 – Universal ethics

49. Culture and Moral Development (1 of 2)
Alternate view of moral reasoning focuses on the individual’s worldview
Worldview provides basis for:
Moral reasoning – explaining right or wrong
Moral evaluations – outcome of moral reasoning
Moral behaviors – actions that reinforce worldview

50. Culture and Moral Development (2 of 2)
Jensen codes peoples’ responses according to three types of “ethics”
Ethic of autonomy – individual is the primary moral authority
Ethic of community – individuals are members of social groups with commitments and obligations
Ethic of divinity – individuals are spiritual entities, subject to a divine authority

51. Figure 8.10 Worldviews Theory
Use figure to highlight Jensen’s ethics based on world view
How is this theory different from Kohlberg’s?

52. Religious Beliefs
Adolescents in developed countries are less religious than those in developing countries
Americans are more religious than other developed countries
Religion has a low priority and tends to follow no specific traditional doctrine
Differences in religiosity include:
family characteristics
ethnicity
Religious involvement provides protective factors

53. Table 8.1 Religious Beliefs of U.S. Adolescents
Believe in God or a universal spirit
84%
Pray at least once a week
65%
Religion important in daily life
51%
Believe in the existence of angels
63%
Attend religious services at least twice a month
52%
Involved in a church youth group
38%

54. Family Relationships (1 of 2)
Conflicts with parents increase
May be due to sexual maturation, cognitive issues, and greater independence and autonomy
Parents may be concerned about adolescents’ safety
Parental monitoring may or may not be an issue as well
Use figure to highlight patterns of conflicts across adolescence. Highlight mother and daughter

55. Family Relationships (2 of 2)
Sibling relationships lead to conflict but less than in earlier childhood
Traditional cultures
Siblings have child care responsibilities
Close to extended family members
More contact in traditional cultures than Western countries (extended family)
Minority communities have closeness with extended families that resembles traditional cultures

56. Figure 8.11 Parental Conflict in Adolescence
Why does conflict peak in the mid-teens?

57. Peers and Friends (1 of 4) Friends provide companionship and intimacy
In traditional cultures adolescents spend more time with family than peers
Intimacy most distinctive feature of adolescent friendships

58. Peers and Friends (2 of 4)
Girls talk more with their friends than boys
Girls more likely to emphasize closeness and affection as part of friendship
Boys more likely to emphasize shared activities as basis of friendship

59. Peers and Friends (3 of 4) Adolescent social groups include:
Cliques – small group of friends
Crowds – larger reputation-based and not necessarily friends
Elites, athletes, academics, deviants, and others
Crowds help adolescents define their own identities

60. Peers and Friends (4 of 4) Bullying peaks in early adolescence
Bully occurs internationally with rates varying country to country
Negative effects include helplessness, anxiety, and unhappiness
Cyberbullying has highest rates in early adolescence

61. Romantic Relationships
Romantic relationships increase over time
Asian cultures later than other groups
Romance is less formal than previous years
Relationships and sexuality are viewed differently due to culture
Permissive cultures tolerate sexuality
Semirestrictive cultures have prohibitions
Restrictive cultures have strong prohibitions
Cross Cultural differences

62. Adolescent Pregnancy and Contraceptive Use
Pregnancy and contraception use vary by type of country
Permissive adolescent sex attitudes – low rates of conception
Influenced by availability and attitudes about safe sex and contraception
Restrictive adolescent sex attitudes – low rates of conception
Influenced by discouraging attitudes
United States’ high rate impacted by mixed messages

63. Figure 8.12 Teenage Pregnancy Rates in Developed Countries
Why are rates so high in the United States?

64. Sexual Orientation
Adolescence is when sexual orientation is fully aware
Historically kept secret now more likely to “come out”
Homophobia can make coming out traumatic
Parental rejection a concern
Acceptance by peers may be increasing

65. Figure 8.13 Media Practice Model
Use Model to stress the motivations of adolescents to engage in the media
In this model, identity is the main motivator of media use.

66. Media Use Electronic games Social media is also prevalent
Become more popular among boys
Favorite games involve violence
Could be related to anxiety and depression
Use may be related to feelings of power, fame, and dealing with stress
Social media is also prevalent
May be linked to higher rates of depression

67. Crime and Delinquency Crime rates peak about 18 then decline
Age–crime relationship
Increased peer importance coupled with independence from parents
Two types of delinquency
Life course – persistent delinquents
Adolescence-limited delinquents
Detail the types of delinquency in more depth

68. Figure 8.15 Multisystemic Approach to Delinquency
Use figure to the approach and provide information
Why is MST more effective than other types of interventions for delinquency?

69. Depression Types of depression
Depressed mood
Major depressive disorder
Causes of depressed mood include conflicts, disappointments, and poor performance in school
Girls are at higher risk than boys
Two types of treatment
Antidepressant medications
Psychotherapy
Mention common cause of depressed mood
Girls at higher risk

70. Resilience in Adolescence
Resilience – good outcomes in spite of threats to adaptation and development
Protective factors are:
High intelligence
Effective parenting
Adult mentor
Religiosity