1. Clades and Classes

2. Types of Natural History Collections
Natural History Museums
Plants
Animals
Skeletons
Preserved
Fossils
Anthropology Collections
Geological collections
Botanical Gardens
Zoological Parks
Plant Garden at the Museum of Natural History, Paris

3. Earliest Natural History Museums
Cabinets of curiosities
Public Museums
16th Century; Conrad Gessner in Zurich
1635; Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris
1677; Ashmolean Museum in Oxford
1881; Natural History Museum in London

4. Functions of Natural History Collections
Education
Catalog biodiversity
Library of information
Repository for type specimens
Source of physical and molecular samples for comparison
Conservation
Main Hall of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago

5. Types of Specimens Museums Botanical gardens Zoological Parks (Zoos)
Specimens are dry or preserved
Fossils
Botanical gardens
Living plants in a park or in greenhouses
Herbaria
Zoological Parks (Zoos)
Living terrestrial animals
Aquaria
Living aquatic animals
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.

6. Natural History Museum, London
Founded 1881
Main collections:
Botany
Entomology
Minerology
Paleontology
Zoology

7. National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
Established 1910
One of the Smithsonian Museums
Main collections:
Plants
Animals
Fossils
Minerals
Rocks
Meteorites
Cultural artifacts

8. Botanical Gardens From herbal gardens and exotic plants, 18th century
History to biblical times
Test and grow plants for medicine, dyes, food, timber, and other economic and strategic purposes
Bartram Gardens –first botanical garden in N.A.
Satisfy European demand for exotic plants

9. New York Botanical Garden, NYC
Established 1891
50 gardens, one a parcel of old-growth forest
Pfizer Plant Research Laboratory
Genomic DNA storage
TreeBOL, a project to ‘barcode’ plants
Mertz Library
Rose garden of the New York Botanical Garden

10. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Opened 1759
Largest collection of living plants >30,000 different species
Jodrell Laboratory
Botanical illustration
Seed collection
Research in secondary compounds
Palm House, Kew Gardens

11. Herbarium Specimens Herbarium sheets Dry mosses & lichens
Large specimens stored in boxes
All kept in cabinets according to a system
Herbarium at the Museum of Natural History, Paris

12. Herbaria
Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (Paris) nearly 10 million specimens
Ботанический институт им. В.Л.Комарова (St. Petersburg) more than 7 million specimens
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (7 million specimens)
New York Botanical Garden, (7 million specimens)
Herbarium curator at the New York Botanical Garden William and Lynda Steere Herbarium

13. Zoos and Aquaria Evolved from private royal menageries
Living collections with different habitat and dietary requirements
Breeding programs in place for conservation and to maintain a breeding population

14. Largest Zoological Parks
Zoologischer Garten Berlin (1844); >1,500 species
Moscovskiy Zoopark (1864); >1,000 species
Beijing Zoo (1906); ~1,000 species (marine and terrestrial)
San Diego Zoo (1916); >800 species
Columbus Zoo and Aquarium (1927); >800 species
Bronx Zoo (1899); >650 species
Penguin exhibit at the Zoologischer Garten Berlin

15. Classification Methods
By ecology
By form
By ancestry

16. Hierarchical Taxonomy of Linnaeus
THE RANKS OF OUR SPECIES
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA (all living things that develop from a blastula)
PHYLUM: VERTEBRATA (all animals that have articulated vertebrae)
CLASS: MAMMALIA: (all vertebrates that have hair and feed their young with milk, have a single dentary and three bones in the middle ear)
ORDER: PRIMATES (all mammals that have opposable thumbs, forward-facing eyes)
FAMILY: HOMINIDAE (all primates that are large, >30-40 kg, tailless, and omnivorous, the Great Apes)
GENUS: Homo (hominids that are bipedal with very fine body hair)
SPECIES: Homo sapiens (a species of Homo that has a chin and small face)

17. All species must have a type deposited in an appropriate collection
The binomial must be unique
Genus is a Latinized noun followed by a Latinized adjective
Example: Homo sapiens Linnaeus (1758)
Description must be published in a reputable journal.

18. Descriptions must conform to:
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

19. Neopalpa donaldtrumpi Nazari 2017

20. Schools of Evolutionary Reconstruction
Evolutionary Systematics (generate phylogenetic trees)
Numerical Systematics (Phenetics, generate phenograms)
Phylogenetic Systematics (Cladistics, generate cladograms)

21. Evolutionary Taxonomy
Followed union of Linnaean Taxonomy with Darwinian evolution to create dendrograms reflecting heirarical structure of the accepted taxonomy.

22. Experts on groups who know both living and fossil groups were relied upon to generate the evolutionary relationships.
Ernst Mayr 1904 (Germany) – 2005 (USA)

23. Numerical Taxonomy Also known as Phenetics
Also uses characterXtaxon matrix and solves to a dendrogram according to similarity coefficient

24. CharacterXTaxon Matrix

25. Rise of Cladistics Founded by Willi Hennig
Difference between primitive and derived characters very important
This system is very powerful when coupled with molecular data
, Germany

26. Cladogram

27. Interpretation of Cladogram

28. Animal Kingdom

29. Vertebrates

30. Mammals within Vertebrates

31. Mammals

32. Primates

33. Hominidae Tree

34. Hominini Tree

35. The PhyloCode
The International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature, known as the PhyloCode, which is governed by the International Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature (ISPN), is developing a formal set of rules governing phylogenetic nomenclature. Currently, it regulates the naming of clades, but species names are left up to the rank-based Nomenclature codes:
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)

36. Types of Clades Used in the Phylocode

37. Node-Based
The clade originating with the most recent common ancestor of A and B or the least inclusive clade containing A and B.
Mammalia: Clade originating with the most recent common ancestor of humans, Homo sapiens Linnaeus 1758, and platypuses Ornithorhynchus anatinus Shaw 1799

38. Branch-Based
The clade containing A and all organisms or species that share a more recent common ancestor with A than with Z or the most inclusive clade containing A but not Z.
Rodentia: Most inclusive clade containing the house mouse, Mus musculus Linnaeus 1758, but not the eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus Allen 1890

39. Apomorphy-Based
The clade originating with the first organism or species to possess apomorphy M inherited by A.
Tetrapoda: Clade originating with the earliest ancestor from which Homo sapiens Linnaeus 1758 inherited limbs with fingers or toes.