1. Chapter 10: Sexual Reproduction and Genetics

2. Why does an organism look like it does?
For a long time, people have observed that offspring look like their parents.

5. Even before we knew about genes, people were breeding livestock to get certain traits in the offspring.
They knew that something caused babies to look like their parents.
Most thought that traits of parents were blended in the offspring.

8. 10.2: Mendelian Genetics
Chapter 10

9. Gregor Mendel Gregor Mendel – “Father of Modern Genetics”
Austrian Monk
Work occurred in 1850s
His work provides framework of what we
know today
Traits are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited.
Mendel Laid the groundwork for genetics.
Genetics is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variation.
Gregor Mendel showed that traits are inherited as discrete units.
Many in Mendel’s day thought traits were blended.

10. Mendel studied pea plants
Why study pea plants?
Reproduces quickly (14 days!)
Self-pollinating or sexually reproduce
Many varying traits
Makes lots of offspring (100+!)
Easy to grow
Understood basic plant reproduction
Pollen ♂ & egg ♀ fused when fertilized
One plant has ♀&♂ structures
Most plants are self-fertilizing (purebred)
Studied the traits of the plants
Traits = characteristics
Mendel cross fertilized plants with contrasting traits (tall and short)

11. Mendel’s Garden

12. Seven Traits of Mendel’s Pea

13. If allowed to self-pollinate, true-breeding plants produce offspring identical to themselves.
Self-pollination – pollen and ovum come from the same plant.
True-breeding – always produce offspring with the same trait.
He wondered what plants would look like if male sex cells in the pollen of one plant fertilize the egg cells on another plant = cross-pollination.
Cross-pollination - using the pollen of one plant to fertilize the ovum of another plant

14. Mendel’s Experiment
He systematically cross-pollinated two different true-breeding plants called the Parent generation (P).

15. Mendel systematically cross-pollinated two different true- breeding plants called the Parent generation (P).
His data revealed patterns of inheritance.
Mendel made three key decisions in his experiments.
use of purebred plants
control over breeding
observation of seven “either-or” traits

16. Cross Fertilizing This caused odd outcomes
Cross Fertilize = taking pollen from one plant and fertilizing the egg of another
Offspring is called a Hybrid
This caused odd outcomes
Tall plant + short plant = tall plant
Mendel used pollen to fertilize selected pea plants.
P generation crossed to produce F1 generation
Mendel controlled the
fertilization of his pea plants
by removing the male parts,
or stamens.
He then fertilized the female
part, or pistil, with pollen from
a different pea plant.

17. Mendel allowed the resulting plants to self-pollinate.
Among the F1 generation, all plants had purple flowers
F1 plants are all heterozygous
Among the F2 generation, some plants had purple flowers and some had white

18. What patterns do you observe?
Mendel observed patterns in the first and second generations of his crosses.
What patterns do you observe?

19. Mendel drew three important conclusions.
Traits are inherited as discrete units.
Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent.
The two copies segregate during gamete formation.
The last two conclusions are called the law of segregation.
purple
white

20. Genes
Genes encode proteins that produce a diverse range of traits.
The same gene can have many versions.
A gene is a piece of DNA that directs a cell to make a certain protein.
Each gene has a locus, a specific position on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

21. An allele is any alternative form of a gene occurring at a specific locus on a chromosome.
Each parent donates one allele for every gene.
Homozygous describes two alleles that are the same at a specific locus.
Heterozygous describes two alleles that are different at a specific locus.

22. Genotype vs. Phenotype Genes influence the development of traits.
All of an organism’s genetic material is called the genome.
A genotype refers to the makeup of a specific set of genes.
A phenotype is the physical expression of a trait.

23. Alleles can be represented using letters.
A dominant allele is expressed as a phenotype when at least one allele is dominant.
A recessive allele is expressed as a phenotype only when two copies are present.
Dominant alleles are represented by uppercase letters; recessive alleles by lowercase letters.

24. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes yield a dominant phenotype.
Most traits occur in a range and do not follow simple dominant-recessive patterns.

25. Punnett squares Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses.
The Punnett square is a grid system for predicting all possible genotypes resulting from a cross.
The axes represent the possible gametes of each parent.
The boxes show the possible genotypes of the offspring.
The Punnett square yields the ratio of possible genotypes and phenotypes.
The inheritance of traits follows the rules of probability.

26. Monohybrid
Monohybrid crosses examine the inheritance of only one specific trait.
homozygous dominant-homozygous recessive: all heterozygous, all dominant

27. heterozygous-heterozygous
1:2:1 homozygous dominant: heterozygous:homozygous recessive
3:1 dominant:recessive

28. heterozygous-homozygous recessive
1:1 dominant:recessive
A testcross is a cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with the recessive phenotype.

29. Probability number of ways a specific event can occur Probability =
Heredity patterns can be calculated with probability.
Probability is the likelihood that something will happen.
Probability predicts an average number of occurrences, not an exact number of occurrences.
Probability =
number of ways a specific event can occur
number of total possible outcomes
Probability applies to random events such as meiosis and fertilization.

30. Human Sex Determination
What is the probability
that a baby will be a girl?
A boy?

31. Probabilities Predict Averages
The larger the number of individuals, the closer the resulting offspring numbers will get to expected values.
Probabilities do not guarantee outcomes!!!!

32. Tt x Tt T t T T T T t t T t t t Tall: ¾ =75% Short: ¼ =25%
number of ways a specific event can occur
number of total possible outcomes
Probability =
Tt x Tt T t T T T T
Tall: ¾ =75%
Short: ¼ =25% t t T t t t

33. Step by step how to guide
Punnett Squares
Step by step how to guide

34. Putting it together Alleles represented by letters
Capital letters = dominant (T)
Lowercase letters = recessive (t)
Dominant letter goes before the recessive letter within Punnett square
Two letters combined = trait
TT, Tt, tt
One from mom and one from dad
Homozygous = both letters same
TT or tt
Heterozygous = both letters differ Tt

35. 6.5 Punnett Squares
A diagram that shows all possible outcomes of a genetic cross
Can be used to predict probabilities
Phenotype – an observable trait
Tall or short
Genotype – genetic make-up or combination of alleles
TT Tt tt

36. Initial Steps (for a monohybrid cross)
1. Identify the Parents being used in the cross
Homozygous or heterozygous
TT, Tt, tt?
Most important step!
2. Segregate the alleles in each set of genes for each parent
Show meiosis creating the haploid cells

37. Tt x Tt T t T t x T t T t Parent: (P)
Heterozygous Tall crossed with Heterozygous Tall
Segregation of alleles: T t T t x
Draw the Square: T t T
Place the parents: t

38. T t T T T T t T t t t t

39. Tt x Tt What’s next? Ratios T t Genotypic Ratio: T T T T t TT = Tt =
Ratio of allele combinations T T T T t
TT =
Tt =
tt = 1 2
1:2:1 t T t t t
Phenotypic
Ratio: 3 1
3:1
Tall =
Short =
Ratio of traits

40. Examples for you to work out!
Tt x tt
-be sure to show both types of ratios
Cross a homozygous tall plant with a short plant

41. Dihybrid Crosses A dyhybrid cross involves two traits.
Mendel’s dihybrid crosses with heterozygous plants yielded a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.
Mendel’s dihybrid crosses led to his second law, the law of independent assortment.
The law of independent assortment states that allele pairs separate independently of each other during meiosis.

42. Initial Steps (for a dihybrid cross)
1. Identify the Parents being used in the cross and figure out the combo of both traits.
Homozygous or heterozygous
TTGG, TTGg, TTgg, TtGG, TtGg, Ttgg, ttGG, ttGg, ttgg?
Most important step!
2. Segregate the alleles in each set of genes for each parent
Show meiosis creating the haploid cells

43. TtGg x TtGg TG Tg tG tg TG Tg tG tg
Heterozygous Tall, Heterozygous Green plant crossed with Heterozygous Tall, Heterozygous Green plant
TtGg x TtGg TG Tg tG tg TG Tg tG tg x

44. TtGg x TtGg TG Tg tg tG TG T T G G T T G T G G T G t t g g Tg T T T G
Step 3 – Set up and complete the Punnett Square TG Tg tg tG TG T T G G T T G T G G T G t t g g Tg T T T G T T T G t t g g g g g g tG T G G T G G G G t t t t t t g g tg T G T G t t t t t t g g g g g g

45. Phenotypic Ratio 9:3:3:1 9 3 3 1 Tall/Green: Tall/yellow: Short/Green:
Short /Yellow:
9:3:3:1
Phenotypic Ratio:

46. Examples for you to work out!
Cross a heterozygous tall, yellow plant with a homozygous tall, heterozygous green plant.
Cross a heterozygous tall, yellow plant with a short, heterozygous green plant.

47. Summary of Mendel’s Work
Traits are determined by genes which are passed from parent to offspring.
Some forms of a genes may be dominant and some recessive for a given trait.
Most sexually reproducing organisms have 2 alleles for a gene that separate when eggs and sperm are formed.
Alleles for different genes can segregate independently of one another.

48. 10.3 Gene Linkage and Polyploidy
Chapter 10

49. Gene Linkage and Mapping
KEY CONCEPT: Genes can be mapped to specific locations on chromosomes.
Gene linkage was explained through fruit flies.
Morgan found that linked traits are on the same chromosome.
Chromosomes, not genes, assort independently during meiosis.
Wild type
Mutant

50. Gene Linkage Linked genes are not inherited together every time.
Chromosomes exchange homologous genes during meiosis.

51. Genes located close together on a chromosome are likely to be inherited together.
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52. Linkage Maps Linkage maps estimate distances between genes.
The closer together two genes are, the more likely they will be inherited together.
Cross-over frequencies are related to distances between genes.
Linkage maps show the relative locations of genes.

53. Crossing Over frequencies
Cross-over frequencies can be converted into map units.
gene A and gene B cross over 6.0 percent of the time
gene B and gene C cross over 12.5 percent of the time
gene A and gene C cross over 18.5 percent of the time