1. Chapter 2: Types of Evidence
“You can learn a lot by just watching.”
—Yogi Berra, former New York Yankees catcher and sage
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Evidence
Students will learn:
The difference between indirect and direct evidence
That eyewitness accounts have limitations
What is meant by physical evidence and give examples
What physical evidence can and cannot prove in court
The significance of individual and class evidence
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Types of Evidence
Two general types:
Testimonial—a statement made under oath; also known as direct evidence or Prima Facie evidence
Physical—any object or material that is relevant in a crime; also known as indirect evidence. Examples are hair, fiber, fingerprints, documents, blood, soil, drugs, tool marks, impressions, glass.
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4. Reliability of Eyewitness
Factors:
Nature of the offense and the situation in which the crime is observed
Characteristics of the witness
Manner in which the information is retrieved
Additional factors:
Witness’s prior relationship with the accused
Length of time between the offense and the identification
Any prior identification or failure to identify the defendant
Any prior identification of a person other than the defendant by the eyewitness
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Eyewitness
A police composite may be developed from the witness testimony by a computer program or forensic artist.
“Perception is reality.”
As a result of the influences in eyewitness memory, physical evidence becomes critical.
Faces—a composite program
by InterQuest
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6. Value of Physical Evidence Louisiana Crime Lab
Generally more reliable than testimonial
Can prove that a crime has been committed
Can corroborate or refute testimony
Can link a suspect with a victim or with a crime scene
Can establish the identity of persons associated with a crime
Can allow reconstruction of events of a crime
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Reconstruction
Physical Evidence is used to answer questions about:
what took place
how the victim was killed
number of people involved
sequence of events
A forensic scientist will compare the questioned or unknown sample with a sample of known origin.
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8. Types of Physical Evidence
Transient Evidence—temporary; easily changed or lost; usually observed by the first officer at the scene
Pattern Evidence—produced by direct contact between a person and an object or between two objects
Conditional Evidence—produced by a specific event or action; important in crime scene reconstruction and in determining the set of circumstances or sequence within a particular event
Transfer Evidence—produced by contact between person(s) or object(s), or between person(s) and person(s)
Associative Evidence—items that may associate a victim or suspect with a scene or each other; ie, personal belongings
—Lee and Labriola in Famous Cases, 2001
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9. Examples of Transient Evidence
Odor—putrefaction, perfume, gasoline, urine, burning, explosives, cigarette or cigar smoke
Temperature—surroundings, car hood, coffee, water in a bathtub, cadaver
Imprints and indentations—footprints, teeth marks in perishable foods, tire marks on certain surfaces
Markings
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10. Examples of Pattern Evidence
Pattern Evidence—most are in the form of imprints, indentations, striations, markings, fractures or deposits.
Clothing or article distribution
Gun powder residue
Material damage
Body position
Tool marks
Modus operandi
Blood spatter
Glass fracture
Fire burn pattern
Furniture position
Projectile trajectory
Tire marks or skid marks
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11. Examples of Conditional Evidence
Light—headlight, lighting conditions
Smoke—color, direction of travel, density, odor
Fire—color and direction of the flames, speed of spread, temperature and condition of fire
Location—of injuries or wounds, of bloodstains, of the victim’s vehicle, of weapons or cartridge cases, of broken glass
Vehicles—doors locked or unlocked, windows opened or closed, radio off or on (station), odometer mileage
Body—position, types of wounds; rigor, livor and algor mortis
Scene—condition of furniture, doors and windows, any disturbance or signs of a struggle
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12. Classification of Evidence by Nature
Biological—blood, semen, saliva, sweat, tears, hair, bone, tissues, urine, feces, animal material, insects, bacterial, fungal, botanical
Chemical—fibers, glass, soil, gunpowder, metal, mineral, narcotics, drugs, paper, ink, cosmetics, paint, plastic, lubricants, fertilizer
Physical—fingerprints, footprints, shoe prints, handwriting, firearms, tire marks, tool marks, typewriting
Miscellaneous—laundry marks, voice analysis, polygraph, photography, stress evaluation, psycholinguistic analysis, vehicle identification
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13. Evidence Characteristics
Class—common to a group of objects or persons
Individual—can be identified with a particular person or a single source
Fingerprints
Blood DNA Typing
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14. Class vs Individual Evidence
Which examples do you think could be individual evidence?
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15. Forensic Investigations
Include some or all of these seven major activities
1. Recognition—ability to distinguish important evidence from unrelated material
Pattern recognition
Physical property observation
Information analysis
Field testing
2. Preservation—collection and proper preservation of evidence
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Investigations
3. Identification—use of scientific testing
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Morphological (structural) properties
Biological properties
Immunological properties
4. Comparison—class characteristics are measured against those of known standards or controls; if all measurements are equal, then the two samples may be considered to have come from the same source or origin.
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Investigations
5. Individualization—demonstrating that the sample is unique, even among members of the same class
6. Interpretation—gives meaning to all the information
7. Reconstruction—reconstructs the events of the case
Inductive and deductive logic
Statistical data
Pattern analysis
Results of laboratory analysis
—Lee, Dr. Henry. Famous Crimes, 2001
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18. Class vs Individual Evidence
These fibers are class evidence; there is no way to determine if they came from this garment.
The large piece of glass fits exactly to the bottle; it is individual evidence.
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19. Careers Forensic Scientists Criminologists Crime Scene Investigators
Coroners
Medical Examiners
Prosecutors
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20. Common Duties Data collection Data analysis Data interpretation
Court testimony
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21. Specialized Duties
Forensic Scientists – identify and/or compare physical evidence through chemical, physical, and instrumental analysis
Criminologists – study criminal and behavioral psychology to aid in criminal investigations
Crime Scene Investigators – collect and preserve physical evidence from crime scenes
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22. Specialized Duties
Medical Examiners – perform autopsies to identify the causes and manners of death
Coroners – typically transport corpses from the crime scene to the morgue; some aid in death investigations
Prosecutors – initiate arrests, indictments and prosecution of criminals
Pluralized some items.
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23. Disciplines
Trace Evidence (hair, fiber, paint, glass, impressions, etc.)
Latent Prints (fingerprints)
Forensic Biology (Serology/DNA)
Toxicology (blood alcohol, poisons)
Controlled substance (drugs)
Questioned documents (handwriting & typescripts)
Firearms (firearms and ammunition)
Others
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24. Other Disciplines Crime Scene Investigation Forensic Photography
Forensic Anthropology
Forensic Computer Science
Forensic Engineering
Forensic Entomology
Forensic Pathology
Forensic Psychology & Psychiatry
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25. Employment Opportunities
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Federal, State, and Local Crime Laboratories
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF)
U.S. Postal Service (USPS)
U.S. Secret Service
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services
Teaching at community colleges and universities
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26. Employment Qualifications
Forensic Scientists – Bachelor of Science (BS) or higher in natural or physical science
Criminologists – BS or higher in sociology or psychology
Crime Scene Investigators – law enforcement officers with a certification, such as one from the International Association for Identification (IAI)
Medical Examiners (ME) – licensed pathologists possessing a Doctor of Medicine (MD), that have completed several years of internship in pathology
Coroners – equivalent to MEs in some jurisdictions; some are elected county officials who handle corpse and death investigation
Prosecutors – Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD) in criminal law
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27. Training College education Internship
In-house training provided by the employing agency
External training sponsored by federal and state agencies such as:
FBI National Academy in Quantico, VA
Texas Department of Public Safety (TXDPS)
Workshops provided by various associations during meetings
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28. Organizations American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS)
American Board of Criminalistics (ABC)
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners (AFTE)
More available on the AAFS website:
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29. Certifications & Accreditations
American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors –Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB)
Accredits crime laboratories
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Certifies crime laboratories (ISO 17025)
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Certifies testing materials used in analysis
American Board of Criminalistics (ABC)
Certifies individual forensic scientists
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30. Resources American Academy of Forensic Sciences www.aafs.org
Do an Internet search for the following: The CSI Effect Brian Dakss.
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People in the News
Dr. Henry Lee—Chief Emeritus for Scientific Services and the former Commissioner of Public Safety for the state of Connecticut. He served as that state’s Chief Criminality from 1979 to Lee was the driving force in establishing the modern forensic lab in Connecticut. He has worked with many high profile cases including O.J. Simpson, Jon Benet Ramsey, and the “wood chipper” case. He is also seen on many of the true crime shows, including his own, “Trace Evidence: The Case Files of Dr. Henry Lee”. Learn more at his website:
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Case Study Pg 24
Coral Eugene Watts
Part one
Part two
Part three
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FBI Investigation
Read a case investigated by the FBI. Observe the various units of their lab and read the section: “How They Do That?”.
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PBS- Forensics
53 minutes
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