1. Theories of forgetting
Retrieval cues

2. Please sit where your name is
A Toby Izzy Emma Amelia B Macie Mia Tom Sophie Dixon C
Sam
Sophie Penfold
Molly
Bailey D
Joshua
Katie
Rob
Rhiannon E
Bethany
Lydia
Steph
Lucy F
Tasher
Lisa
Sarah
Phoebe
Seating: based on English GCSE (group A)

3. Theories of forgetting interference
Starter activity
Theories of forgetting
interference

4. Put two columns on scrap paper
Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference

5. Put each piece of text under the correct column – use a logical order
These findings show retroactive interference Ex: automatically using old PIN when trying to input new PIN in cash machine Schmidt et al (2000) Old information interferes with new information There was a positive association between how many times respondents had moved out of the area, and forgetting street names on a map Ex. You can’t log onto facebook because you have recently changed to a new password for gmail, and this is interfering with older and different password for facebook New information interferes with old information More errors made as participants were exposed to an increased number of lists These findings show proactive interference

6. Answers Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference
Old information interferes with new information
Ex: automatically using old PIN when trying to input new PIN in cash machine
New information interferes with old information
Ex. You can’t log onto facebook because you have recently changed to a new password for gmail, and this is interfering with older and different password for facebook
Schmidt et al (2000)
More errors made as participants were exposed to an increased number of lists
There was a positive association between how many times respondents had moved out of the area, and forgetting street names on a map
These findings show proactive interference
These findings show retroactive interference

7. Exam focus on Forgetting
With reference to research, describe interference as an explanation of forgetting (6)

8. Interference can be proactive or retroactive
Interference can be proactive or retroactive. Proactive is when old memories interfere with new memories and retroactive is when new memories interfere with old. An example is moving house and learning a new postcode but forgetting your old postcode. This is an example of retroactive interference. A good thing about this explanation is that there is research to support the explanation, such as Baddeley and Hitch. This type of interference can also explain why when you are revising two similar subjects such as sociology and psychology you may get information mixed up.
Interference is when information in the LTM is disrupted by other information. Proactive interference is where old information disrupts new information and retroactive is when new information disrupts old information. An example of this could be moving house and learning a new postcode but then being asked for your old postcode and forgetting it. This is an example of retroactive interference. Research in this area has found that if participants are asked to learn a list of word pairs they can recall it well. However, when they are given two lists to learn and then asked to recall the first list they will get the two lists mixed up. This shows that the later list disrupts the recall for the earlier list and is an example of retroactive interference.

9. Mark scheme
1-2 marks – Interference has been briefly outlined but there is limited description and no reference to research
3-4 marks – Interference is described but the answer is slightly muddled. There is reference to relevant research but this lacks detail.
5-6 marks – Interference has been clearly identified and described in detail. There is reference to relevant research and this has been linked to the explanation.

10. Exam focus Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Martin is studying for his modern language exams. He revises French followed by Spanish on the same night and then gets confused between the two: for example, he remembers the French word for ‘chair’ instead of the Spanish word for ‘chair’. Sometimes, his mum helps to test Martin’s vocabulary. When he is unable to remember a word, his mum tells him the first letter, then he can often recall it correctly.
Discuss two explanations for forgetting. Refer to Martin’s experiences in your answer.
(Total 12 marks)

11. How does Retrieval Failure explain Forgetting?
Understand
To describe how retrieval failure explains forgetting.
Apply
To explain retrieval failure using real life examples.
Analysis
To compare retrieval failure with interference theory of forgetting.
Evaluate
To discuss strengths, weaknesses and evidence for retrieval failure theory of forgetting.

12. Instructions You will see a number of Countries
Cue Dependent
Instructions
You will see a number of Countries
Please write down the capital city for each country
Do NOT confer
You MUST conduct this experiment in silence
Ready? Then we’ll begin

13. Cue Dependent
Germany

14. Cue Dependent
Australia

15. Cue Dependent
USA

16. Cue Dependent
Spain

17. Cue Dependent
Netherlands

18. Cue Dependent
Greece

19. Cue Dependent
China

20. Cue Dependent
Japan

21. Cue Dependent
Portugal

22. Cue Dependent
Instructions
You will now see the same list of countries but the first letter of each capital city will be given to you as a prompt.
Have another look and see if you can get any more answers.
Make sure you note which ones you were able to get when you had the prompt

23. Cue Dependent
Germany - B

24. Cue Dependent
Australia - C

25. Cue Dependent
USA - W

26. Cue Dependent
Spain - M

27. Cue Dependent
Netherlands - A

28. Cue Dependent
Greece - A

29. Cue Dependent
China - B

30. Cue Dependent
Japan - T

31. Cue Dependent
Portugal - L

32. Now check your answers... Germany – Berlin Australia - Canberra
Cue Dependent
Now check your answers...
Germany – Berlin
Australia - Canberra
USA – Washington DC
Spain – Madrid
Netherlands – Amsterdam
Greece – Athens
China – Beijing
Japan – Tokyo
Portugal - Lisbon

33. How did you answers compare first and second time around?
Cue Dependent
How did you answers compare first and second time around?
Why was this?

34. Why do people forget?
Forgetting in LTM is mainly due to retrieval failure. Information is available but you can’t access it. This happens when you have insufficient cues during recall.
When information is placed in memory, their associated cues are stored at the same time.
If these cues are not available at the time of recall, then there is an appearance that the information has been forgotten.
This theory suggests that the information is still available for recall, but it cannot be accessed until the correct cues are in place.

35. Encoding Specificity Principle
Tulving (1983) referred to what he called the Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP).
This states that a cue is going to help us remember information, it has to be present during encoding (when we learn the information) and at retrieval (recall).
If the cues at encoding and retrieval are different then some forgetting will occur.
Question: According to the encoding specificity principle where should your exam be?
For example, if you revise at college, you are more likely to retrieve the information than you are if you revise at home, as the college will act as a cue for retrieval because the surroundings were there during encoding.

36. Cue-dependent forgetting
can occur due to a lack of the same external or internal cues during recall.
Context dependent forgetting: This depends on the environment in which the encoding takes place and how this acts as a cue to remembering in the same environment again. (external cues)
State-dependent forgetting refers to internal cues (states of awareness) that are different during encoding information and retrieving it. An example is encoding information while under the influence of alcohol, only to forget it the next day.

37. Adaptation of Godden and Baddeley (1975)

38. Standardised instructions
Randomly allocate participants to one of two conditions Those in condition B will stay in the room. Those in condition A will leave the room and go outside the building (you will need to take a pen and spare paper with you)

39. Instructions for Condition A
Find a place outside the building (if it is poor weather, then stay inside) Time three minutes from when you leave the classroom to when you are ready to recall the words – Use your mobile phones/watches to time exactly three minutes. Take a pen and paper with you Once the three minutes has passed, allow a further two minutes to write down as many words as you can recall in any order. Again, use your mobile devices/watches to indicate when the two minutes is up Please do not talk to anyone else about the words you have learned, and please recall the words on your own Once the two minutes is up, please return to the classroom with your word lists as soon as is possible. Again, avoid talking to anyone

40. Instructions for Condition B
After reading the initial set of words, You will wait for three minutes before writing down as many words as possible. The teacher will indicate the time You will have two minutes to write as many words down as you can in any order. The teacher will indicate the timing Please remain silent throughout the study

41. Are you ready to begin reading the word list?
When you here the bell, please turn over the word list and begin reading them in your head over and over again
Please avoid using memory strategies. The results will not be a reflection on your cognitive or intellectual abilities

42. Please turn over
You will hear a bell in 10 seconds, then turn over the word list and begin reading the lists in your head

43. 90 seconds left

44. 60 seconds left

45. 30 seconds left

46. 10 seconds left

47. Finish
Please turn over the word list, and carry out the instructions relating to which condition you are in (A leave the room, B stay in the class)

48. Statistical analysis
Please give the findings to me and I will place all the raw data on the board. Copy the table down Work out the mean, median, mode and range for each condition Looking at these descriptive stats, are there any major differences between the conditions?

49. (stretch and challenge)
Confident so far?
Understand
If you are still feeling unsure…
Complete task 1: the knowledge questions on Proactive/Retroactive interference
Apply
(All)
Complete task 2: With these examples , state which is context-dependent forgetting, state-dependant forgetting, proactive interference and retroactive interference or none of these.
Complete Task 3: dissecting Godden and Baddeley (1979)
Evaluate
(stretch and challenge)
Using Carter and Cassaday (1998) effectively to support the absence of cues explanation.
You need to take a pink highlighter and highlight all the text that you wouldn’t want to include if you were using this study to support the theory.

50. Let’s Evaluate the theory using SCOUT…
S Supporting Evidence
Studies/evidence to support the theory.
C Conflicting Evidence
Studies/evidence to challenge the theory.
O Other explanations
How else could we explain it? Alternative theories.
U Usefulness
Does it have any useful practical applications?
T Testability
Can the theory be tested? How?
Write one evaluation point using state – make - explain

51. Further things to think about
Can we relate to it in real life?
What are the downsides of relying on experimental evidence?
Are there any circumstances where state and context cues might be the same?
How is this theory useful to students like you?

52. Exam focus Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Martin is studying for his modern language exams. He revises French followed by Spanish on the same night and then gets confused between the two: for example, he remembers the French word for ‘chair’ instead of the Spanish word for ‘chair’. Sometimes, his mum helps to test Martin’s vocabulary. When he is unable to remember a word, his mum tells him the first letter, then he can often recall it correctly.
Discuss two explanations for forgetting. Refer to Martin’s experiences in your answer.
(Total 12 marks)

53. Track your learning

54. Theories of Forgetting
Answers to activities on retrieval failure

55. Task 1 - answers
When people forget, what is thought to be insufficient?
Cues
What is thought to be stored at the same time when information is placed in memory?
Associated cues
Imagine that you were at a party and you met someone you liked who was wearing a distinct fragrance. What would happen next time you were in Boots and someone sprayed a tester next to you which was the same fragrance.
 You would probably remember the person you had met, where you had met, the song in the background, what you did etc.
Tulving (1983) refers to this phenomenon as the Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP) define exactly what this is.
The principle (assumption) that forgetting occurs if the cues available at retrieval are not the same as were present during coding (learning).

56. Task 1 - answers
Go back to question 3. Now explain what would happen using psychological terminology in your answer.
The fragrance you sense in boots is the cue that was available when you met the person. This cue was coded with other information during the event and is strongly associated with the person. Every time the person smells the fragrance they will recall the person and the night in question. So the memory is dependent on the context
What is meant by context dependent forgetting?
Some information will be forgotten if a person is trying to recall it in a (very) different context to when it was learned
Give an example of context dependent memory.
For example, you may not recognise a school friend immediately if you bump into them on holiday
What is meant by state-dependent forgetting?
Some information will be forgotten if a person is trying to recall it in a (very) different state to when it was learned
Give an example of state-dependent memory.
A person may have flu and arrange to meet someone the next week. Because they were in a different state, they forget the appointment

57. Task 2 – Applying your knowledge
Helena – State dependent forgetting
Richard – Retroactive interference (new information interferes with the old information)
Clive – None. Forgetting due to biological trauma caused by illness
Izzy – Proactive interference (old information interferes with the new information)
Granny L – Retroactive interference (new information interferes with the old information)
Peter – context dependent forgetting

58. Task 3 - Answers to study dissection
What is the IV in this study – warning: it is not whether they learned the material on land or underwater
Whether they learned the material in the same or different context
What is the DV in this study?
Percentage of words accurately recalled
What is the experimental design of this study?
Independent groups design
Can you develop an operationalised non-directional hypothesis for this study?
There will be a difference in the percentage recall of words from a list of 36 between participants who learn and recall in the same context (either on land both times or underwater both times), and participants who learn and recall in different contexts (learned on land, recalled underwater; learned underwater, recalled on land)

59. Task 3 - Answers to study dissection
What were the findings in this study?
How do these findings support the role of retrieval failure in forgetting in LTM? (grounding the evidence)
There is less accurate information recalled when the contexts were not the same, and more accuracy when the context was the same. This indicates that memory does seem to work on the encoding specificity principle (ESP). Because when the coding and recall environments were different, in in this case, very much so, there were no cues to aid recall. When cues did exist because the context was the same, this prompted better recall, as predicted by the ESP
Learn on land – recall on land (same context)
Recall accuracy = 37%
Learn underwater – recall on land (different context)
Recall accuracy = 23%
Learn on land – recall underwater (different context)
Recall accuracy = 24%
Learn underwater – recall underwater (same context)
Recall accuracy = 32%

60. Task 3 - Answers to study dissection
Now think of one positive and one negative evaluation
Two examples: there are many more
Positive – The findings of this study can be used to help students. If these findings can be generalised to other situations, it makes sense that students would revise for tests in their college, if possible in the room in which they will take the exam. This means that this study has real valuable as evidence to guide student’s revision agendas
Negative – the findings represent what happens when there is a large variation between contexts, but tells us little if the contexts are different but to less extremes. This means generalisation to other contexts must proceed with caution

61. Task 4 – effective use of supporting evidence
Original answer: In a study in the United Kingdom on students at Nottingham University in 1998, Carter and Cassaday gave anti-histamine drugs or a placebo (vitamin pills) to participants. Anti-histamines are drugs used to treat allergies, but they have a mild side-effect of causing drowsiness and therefore altering the state of awareness for the participants. A placebo is a pill, tablet or other intervention in which participants think they are receiving active medical treatment. It is only that the participants think that they are receiving treatment, that makes them feel better. Why this happens is still largely unknown. In this case, the placebo was a simple vitamin pill, so it would have been highly unlikely that its use would have any cognitive effect. Why this happens is still largely unknown, although it is thought that headache pills, anti-depressants, acupuncture, homeopathy all show signs of success largely due to the placebo effect. Participants were asked to learn and recall information in four different conditions: Learn on drug – recall on drug (same state); learn on placebo – recall on drug (different state); learn on drug – recall on placebo (different state) and learn on placebo – recall on placebo (same state). The researchers found a marked decrease in accuracy of recall in a memory test when the participants’ internal state did not match at the time of encoding) and retrieval (for example, learn on placebo, recall on drug), and an increased performance when the internal states did match. This is in line with the predictions made by the explanation of forgetting due to being in a different internal state, as more items were recalled when the participants were in the same state when coding and retrieving the information, and they recalled fewer items when their internal state did not match during coding and retrieval. 297 words – far too much. Will be marked down for poor selection of material This is often seen in students who think they’ve done well because they have written a lot on each answer, but this is not the case. The subsequent versions are ½ and 2/3rds the size, but are more effective.

62. Task 4 – effective use of supporting evidence
Carter and Cassaday (1998) gave either anti-histamine drugs (which cause drowsiness) or a placebo (vitamin pills) to student participants. The researchers found a marked decrease in accuracy of recall in a memory test when the participants’ internal state did not match at the time of encoding) and retrieval (for example, learn on placebo, recall on drug), and an increased performance when the internal states did match. Because more items were recalled when the participants were in the same state when learning and retrieving the information, and they recalled fewer items when their internal state did not match during learning and retrieval. It can be strongly argued that these findings support the theory that people forget if they recall in different internal states to when they learn information. 127 words – better, still too many

63. Task 4 – effective use of supporting evidence
Carter and Cassaday (1998) found that there was less accuracy of recall of information when participants were in different internal states to when they learned the material compared with when they were in the same internal states. Internal state before learning was manipulated using an independent groups design, with one condition receiving a drug which induced drowsiness and the other receiving a placebo. It can be strongly argued that these findings support the theory that people forget if they recall in different internal states to when they learn information, showing the power of not just external context but internal states as cues.
102 words - better

64. Memory What is the capacity of STM? What is the capacity of LTM?
What is the duration of Sensory Register?
How many stores are there in the MSM of memory?
What has to happen for STM to be passed into LTM?
Name three types of Long-term memory
Which of the above is a memory for skills?
Which of the above is a memory for events that occur?
How many components in WMM?
Which component is in charge of the other slave systems?

65. Memory What is the capacity of STM? 7 + or – 2
What is the capacity of LTM Unlimited
4) What is the duration of Sensory Register? ½ - 3 secs
5) How many stores are there in the MSM of memory? 3
6) What has to happen for STM to be passed into LTM Maintenance Rehearsal
7) Name three types of Long-term memory episodic, semantic, procedural
8) Which of the above is a memory for skills? procedural
9) Which of the above is a memory for events that occur? episodic
10) How many components in WMM? 4
11) Which component is in charge of the other slave systems? The central executive
Score out of 12