1. Perfume and Flavor
Dr. Ghulam Abbas

2. 1) Clive Christian Perfume Cost: Absolutely 25000 dollars. 
2) Hermes Perfume 24 Faubourg
3) Annick Goutal Perfume)
4- Joy Perfume From Jean Patou
5) Jar Perfumes
6) Baccarat Perfume
7) Ralph Lauren Perfume Notorious
8) Caron's Poivre
9) Shalini Perfume
10) Chanel No. 5 Cost: 550 dollars per bottle

3. Introduction
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oil and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell.

4. Background
Since the beginning of recorded history, humans have attempted to use perfume, which emulates (copy) nature's pleasant smells.
Many natural and man-made materials have been used to make perfume to apply to the skin and clothing, to put in cleaners and cosmetics, or to scent the air.
Because of differences in body chemistry, temperature, and body odors, no perfume will smell exactly the same on any two people.

5. Background
Perfume comes from the Latin "per" meaning "through" and "fumum," or "smoke."
Many ancient perfumes were made by extracting natural oils from plants through pressing and steaming.
The oil was then burned to scent the air. Today, most perfume is used to scent bar soaps. Some products are even perfumed with industrial odorants to mask unpleasant smells or to appear "unscented.“
While fragrant liquids used for the body are often considered perfume, true perfumes are defined as extracts or essences and contain a percentage of oil distilled in alcohol.
Water is also used. The United States is the world's largest perfume market with annual sales totaling several billions of dollars.

6. Describing a perfume
The precise formulas of commercial perfumes are kept secret, but even if they were widely published would be dominated by such complex chemical procedures and ingredients that they would be of little use in providing a useful description of the experience of a scent.
Shelves of perfumes
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to its concentration level, the family it belongs to, and the notes of the scent, which all affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.

7. Describing a perfume Fragrance notes
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three 'notes', making the harmonious chord of the scent.
Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. The scents of this note class are usually described as "fresh," "assertive" or "sharp." The compounds that contribute to top notes are strong in scent, very volatile, and evaporate quickly. Citrus and ginger scents are common top notes. Also called the head notes.
Middle notes: The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. Scents from this note class appear anywhere from 2 minutes to 1 hour after the application of a perfume. Lavender and rose scents are typical middle notes. Also called the heart notes.

8. Base notes: The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidness to a perfume. Compounds of this class are often the fixatives used to hold and boost the strength of the lighter top and middle notes. The compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after the application of the perfume or during the period of perfume dry-down. Musk, vetiver and scents of plant resins are commonly used as base notes.

9. Perfume Constituents
A perfume is defined as any mixture of pleasantly odorous incorporated in suitable vehicle.
The finest modern perfumes are neither wholly synthetics nor completely natural
to reduce the price, and
to introduce fragrances into the enchanting gamut at present available.
Constituents of perfumes are:
vehicles or solvents
the fixatives, and
odoriferous elements

10. Vehicles Solvents used for blending and holding perfume materials
e.g., ethyl alcohol and water at different ratios – depend on solubility of the oils employed
It is volatile nature and helps to project the sent it carries.
It is fairly inert to solute and not too irritating to human skin.

11. Fixatives
Fixatives may be defined as substances of lower volatility of the perfume oils, which retard and even up the rate of evaporation of the various odorous constituents
animal secretions
resinous products
synthetic chemicals
essential oils
Animal Fixatives
Civet –soft fatty acid secretion of the perineal gland of civet cat.
Ambergris –secretion, developed by certain whales
Musc zibata – extracted from glands of Louisiana muskrat. About 90% of the unsaponifiable materials in the muskrat gland consists of large, odorless cyclic acohols, which are converted to ketones.
In an ordinary solution of perfume substances in alcohol, the more volatile materials evaporate first, and the odor of the perfume consists of a series of impression rather than desired ensemble.

12. Resinous fixatives Normal or pathological exudates from certain plants
Hard resins – benzoin and gums
Soft resins – myrrh and labdanum
Moderately soft (balsams) – Peru balsam, tolu balsam, copiaba and storax
Oily materials (oleoresins) – terpenes

13. Synthetic fixatives
These are replace of costly imported animal fixatives
Glyceryl diacetate
Ethyl phthalate
Benzyl benzoate
Amyl benzoate
Cinnamic alcohol esters
Cinnamic acid esters
Musk ketone
Courmarin
Indole

14. Odorous substances Essential oils
Essential oils may be defined as volatile, odoriferous oils of vegetable origin.
Essential oils are probably connected with metabolism, fertilization, or protection from enemies. It found in buds, flowers, leaves, bark, stems, fruits, seeds, wood, roots and rhizomes.
In some trees in oleoresinous exudates.
Essential oils are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents, although enough of the oil may dissolve in water to give an intense odor to the solution, e.g., rose water or orange flavor water.

15. Essential oils The compounds occuring in essential oils are;
Esters – mainly of benzoic, salicylic, acetic and cinnamic acids.
Alcohols – Linalool, geraniol, citronellol, terpinol, menthol.
Aldehydes – citral, citronellol, benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde.
Acids – benzoic, cinnamic, myristic.
Phenols – eugenol, thymol, carvacrol.
Ketones – carvone, menthone, camphor, methyl heptenine
Esters – cineole, anethole, safrole
Lactones – coumarin
Terpenes – camphene, pinene, limonene, phellandrene.
Hydrocarbons – cymene, styrene (phenylethylene).

16. The Manufacturing Process
Collection
Plant substances are harvested from around the world, often hand-picked for their fragrance. Animal products are obtained by extracting the fatty substances directly from the animal. Aromatic chemicals used in synthetic perfumes are created in the laboratory by perfume chemists.
Extraction
Oils are extracted from plant substances by several methods: steam distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression.
In steam distillation, steam is passed through plant material held in a still, whereby the essential oil turns to gas. This gas is then passed through tubes, cooled, and liquefied. Oils can also be extracted by boiling plant substances like flower petals in water instead of steaming them.

17. The Manufacturing Process
Under solvent extraction, flowers are put into large rotating tanks or drums and benzene or a petroleum ether is poured over the flowers, extracting the essential oils. The flower parts dissolve in the solvents and leave a waxy material that contains the oil, which is then placed in ethyl alcohol. The oil dissolves in the alcohol and rises. Heat is used to evaporate the alcohol, which once fully burned off, leaves a higher concentration of the perfume oil on the bottom.
Oils are extracted from plant substances by steam distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, or expression.

18. The Manufacturing Process
During enfleurage, flowers are spread on glass sheets coated with grease. The glass sheets are placed between wooden frames in tiers. Then the flowers are removed by hand and changed until the grease has absorbed their fragrance.
Maceration is similar to enfleurage except that warmed fats are used to soak up the flower smell. As in solvent extraction, the grease and fats are dissolved in alcohol to obtain the essential oils.
Expression is the oldest and least complex method of extraction. By this process, now used in obtaining citrus oils from the rind, the fruit or plant is manually or mechanically pressed until all the oil is squeezed out.
It is the ratio of alcohol to scent that determines perfume (10-15 %), eau de toilette 4-15%), and cologne 2-5%.

19. The Manufacturing Process
Blending
Once the perfume oils are collected, they are ready to be blended together according to a formula determined by a master in the field, known as a "nose." It may take as many as 800 different ingredients and several years to develop the special formula for a scent. After the scent has been created, it is mixed with alcohol. Most full perfumes are made of about 10-20% perfume oils dissolved in alcohol and a trace of water. Colognes contain approximately 3-5% oil diluted in 80-90% alcohol, with water making up about 10%. Toilet water has the least amount—2% oil in 60-80% alcohol and 20% water.
Aging
Fine perfume is often aged for several months or even years after it is blended.

20. Olfactory Receptors Smell (olfactory) receptors and taste receptors are chemoreceptors, which means that chemicals dissolved in liquids stimulate them. Smell and taste function closely together and aid in food selection because we usually smell food at the same time we taste it. This figure shows the lateral wall of the nasal cavity (cut in sagittal section) showing the olfactory recess and olfactory bulb.

21. Quality Control
Because perfumes depend heavily on harvests of plant substances and the availability of animal products, perfumery can often turn risky.
Thousands of flowers are needed to obtain just one pound of essential oils, and if the season's crop is destroyed by disease or adverse weather. The same species of plant raised in several different areas with slightly different growing conditions may not yield oils with exactly the same scent.
Problems are also encountered in collecting natural animal oils. Many animals once killed for the value of their oils are now cannot be hunted.
Synthetic perfumes have allowed perfumers more freedom and stability. The use of synthetic perfumes and oils eliminates the need to extract oils from animals and removes the risk of a bad plant harvest, saving much expense and the lives of many animals.

22. Future of Perfume
Perfumes are being manufactured more and more frequently with synthetic chemicals rather than natural oils.
Less concentrated forms of perfume are also becoming increasingly popular.
The sense of smell is considered a right brain activity, which rules emotions, memory, and creativity. Aromatherapy—smelling oils and fragrances to cure physical and emotional problems—is being revived to help balance hormonal and body energy.
Smelling sweet smells also affects one's mood and can be used as a form of psychotherapy.

23. Steam distillation

24. CHEMISTRY OF FLAVOR, ODOUR AND TASTE COMPONENTS IN FOOD

25. FLAVOUR AND ODOUR
Flavour plays an important and indispensable role in modern food
Flavor is the sensation produced by a material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and also by the general pain, tactile, and temperature receptors in the mouth.
Flavor also denotes the sum of the characteristics of the material which produces that sensation.
The flavour of the food can be altered with natural or artificial flavourants which affect these senses

26. Natural Food Flavors
Natural flavoring substances are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes.
They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption.
The natural flavorants are first extracted from the source substance by solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to squeeze it out.
The extracts are then usually purified and subsequently added to food products to flavor them

27. Classification of Natural Food Flavors
Flavor types
Examples
1.Fruit flavor
i. Citrus-type flavors
ii. Berry-type flavors
grapefruit, orange
apple, raspberry, banana
2. Vegetable flavors
lettuce, celery
3. Spice flavors
i.Aromatic
ii. Lachrymogenic
iii. Hot
cinnamon, peppermint
onion, garlic
Pepper, ginger
4. Beverage flavors
i. Unfermented flavors
ii. Fermented flavors
iii. Compounded flavors
juices, milk
wine, beer, tea
soft drinks

28. 5. Meat flavors
i. Mammal flavors
ii. Sea food flavors
lean beef
fish, clams
6. Fat flavors
olive oil, coconut fat, pork fat, butter fat
7.Cooked flavors
i. Broth
ii. Vegetable
iii. Fruit
Beef bouillon
Legume, potatoes
Marmalade
8. Processed flavors
i. Smoky flavors
ii. Broiled fried flavors
iii.Roasted, toasted, baked flavors
Ham
Processed meat products
Coffee, snack foods, processed, cereals

29. 2. Artificial food flavorants or flavorings
An artificial flavorant is a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc.
e.g. Different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which are made of bases with a similar taste.
Artificial flavorings are focused on altering or enhancing the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks.
Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste.
Few commercial products exist to stimulate these senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors.
These are of two types

30. i. Nature-identical flavoring substances
These are flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically and organoleptically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption.
ii. Artificial flavoring substances
Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed.
These are produced by fractional distillation and additional chemical manipulation of naturally sourced chemicals or from crude oil or coal tar.
They are chemically different but in sensory characteristics are the same as natural ones.

31. Type of Artficial Flavorants

32. 2. TASTE
The basic taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (unami).
While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors are considered and referred to as taste flavorants.
Artificial sweeteners are also technically taste flavorants.

33. Taste The sensory structures that detect gustatory, or taste, stimuli are the taste buds. Most taste buds are associated with specialized portions of the tongue called papillae. Taste buds, however, are also located on other areas of the tongue, the palate, and even the lips and throat, especially in children. There are four major types of papillae, named according to their shape: circumvallate, fungiform, foliate, and filiform. Taste buds are associated with circumvallate, fungiform, and foliate papillae. Filiform papillae are the most numerous papillae on the surface of the tongue but have no taste buds.

34. THE END