1. Galaxy Classification
General Categories
Some Cautionary Notes
Galaxies are not alike
For every general rule I give, one can find exceptions
Classifying galaxies is difficult
They look different in different wavelengths
If the galaxy is moving, you have to correct for red-shift
Even experts often disagree on the classification
There are different systems for classifying galaxies
The original one, developed by Hubble, is the basis for most other systems
I will use the Hubble - De Vaucouleurs system
An expansion on the original Hubble sytem

2. The Categories Galaxies are classified by their appearance
Unbarrred Spiral
Central roundish bulge plus disk
Barred Spiral
Central elongated bulge plus disk
Elliptical
Elongated bulge, no disk
Irregular
No discernible shape
Dwarf Spheroidal
Small, dim, and round

3. Unbarred Spiral Galaxies
General Description
Denoted SA
Pinwheel-like
Central bulge, spiral arms
Spiral arms, etc., signs of rotation
Nuclear region is round
Young and old stars, gas, dust
80% of large galaxies are Spirals or (Barred or Unbarred)
Sub-classified by amount of arms, and how tight or loose they are
SA0 - no distinguishable spiral arms
SAa, SAb, SAc, SAd - more spiral arms, and looser
SAm – no bulge, typically one distorted spiral arm

4. SA0
Also called lenticular galaxies
Central Bulge
Disk
No Spiral Arms

5. SAa
Central Bulge
Disk
Tight spiral arms

6. SAb
Central Bulge
Disk
Spiral arms

7. SAc
Central Bulge
Disk
Loose spiral arms

8. SAd Central Bulge Disk Very loose spiral arms
Often, spiral arms are disconnected or broken

9. SAm Classified by Hubble as irregular galaxies
They have just a bulge and typically one spiral arm
Probably a spiral galaxy disturbed by collision with a larger galaxy

10. Spiral Galaxy Structure
Overall, very similar to Milky Way
Disk contains
Gas
Dust
Young and old stars
Open clusters
Stars in the disk orbit in approximately circular orbits
The bulge contains older stars
Orbits much more random
The halo contains oldest stars and globular clusters
Orbits completely random
Most (all?) galaxies seem to have black holes in their centers
The disk
The bulge
The nucleus
The halo
Globular clusters

11. Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies
Spirals Rotate
Rotation measured by Doppler shift
Mass, again, not concentrated in the center
85% of mass is dark matter
Flat rotation curves  dark matter

12. Barred Spiral Galaxies
General Description
Denoted SB
It is now believed that most spiral galaxies have at least some bar
Pinwheel-like
Central bulge, spiral arms
Spiral arms, etc., signs of rotation
Nuclear region is straight - barred
Young and old stars, gas, dust
80% of large galaxies are Spirals or Barred Spirals
Sub-classified by amount of arms, and how tight or loose they are
SB0 - no distinguishable spiral arms
SBa, SBb, SBc, SBd - more spiral arms, and looser
SBm – no bulge, typically one distorted spiral arm

13. SB0
Also called lenticular galaxies
Central Bar
Disk
No spiral arms

14. SBa
Central Bulge
Disk
Tight spiral arms

15. SBb
Central Bar
Disk
Spiral arms
Milky Way?

16. SBc
Central Bar
Disk
Looser spiral arms

17. SBd Central Bar Disk Very loose spiral arms
Often the arms are partially disconnected

18. SBm Classified by Hubble as irregular galaxies
They have just a bulge and typically one spiral arm
Coming off of a bar-shaped central region
Probably a barred spiral galaxy disturbed by collision with a larger galaxy

19. Intermediates
The amount of barring and the amount of spiral arms are continuous variables
As we have gotten better at classifying, it becomes useful to have categories between these
Between the spirals (SA) and the barred spirals (SB) are the intermediate spirals
Denoted SAB
Between each of the categories a through d, there are intermediate
Denoted by using both letters, like bc
For example, a SABcd galaxy would have
Some barring, but not as much as an SB galaxy
Looser arms than an SABc, but tighter than SABd

20. Barred Versus Unbarred Spirals
It is not obvious what causes bars to form
Numerical simulations indicate that over time, instability causes bars to form
Probably bars are a sign that a galaxy has “matured”
Over time, most (all?) unbarred spiral galaxies become barred spirals
Process takes a couple Gyr
Age of universe < 14 Gyr
Over long times, bars may also become unstable
May cause barred galaxies to be back to unbarred (?)

21. Elliptical Galaxies Categorization
Look like a sphere or a flattened sphere
Little gas and dust
Mostly old stars
Classified by how round they look
E0 looks circular
E7 is very elongated
There is a relatively objective way to classify them
Measure their long and short axes
Formula for the number is
Elliptical galaxies have the largest range of masses
Dwarf ellipticals are the smallest
Add the letter d in front, so it might be a dE2 galaxy
Giant ellipticals are the largest 2a 2b

22. E0

23. E1

24. E2

25. E3

26. E4

27. E5

28. E6

29. E7

30. Elliptical Galaxy Shapes
Appearance may depend on angle of view
Amount of flattening probably has to do with rotation
Beyond E7, galaxy probably becomes unstable

31. Elliptical Galaxy Structure
Rather different from the Milky Way
Typically contains only old stars
Star orbits can be
Completely random, or
Have a bias so there is net angular momentum of the galaxy
Probably, the more rotation there is, the more flattened the shape is
No gas and dust, so no new stars
Halo often contains low-density hot gas
The visible part
The nucleus
The halo
Globular clusters

32. Elliptical Halos
Elliptical galaxies don’t have thick clouds, but they do have diffuse, hot gas
These gasses emit X-rays
Gravity vs. pressure – they expand to make a giant sphere
Amount of gravity tells us 85% of the mass of the galaxy is dark matter in the halo

33. Dwarf Ellipticals
Some elliptical galaxies are much smaller than typical galaxies
Denoted dE, for dwarf ellipticals
There are typically no spiral galaxies of this size
These galaxies probably originally had gas, but all gas has since been consumed
These may have been the first galaxies ever formed
Other galaxies formed primarily from mergers of dwarf ellipticals

34. Giant Ellipticals The largest galaxies tend to be elliptical galaxies
Still denoted by E
There are typically no spiral galaxies this large
They tend to be more round
They galaxies often have low densities of stars
They are therefore “low surface brightness galaxies”
Denoted D in the Yerkes classification system
The largest of these are called cD or Central Dominant galaxies
Usually at the center of a cluster of galaxies
Often contain multiple nuclei
Multiple giant black holes
Probably formed from the merger of many smaller galaxies

35. Other Types of Galaxies
Irregular Galaxies
Irregular galaxies don’t fit in well with the others
Some of them look a little like spiral galaxies
Gas, dust, young and old stars
Like a galactic disk, no spirals, a mess
Probably caused by disruptive collisions
Classified as Im

36. Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies
Much lower mass than typical galaxies
Stars are spread out – low density
Mass of stars insufficient to hold them together
Strong indication they are mostly dark matter, not much else
Difficult to see beyond nearby galaxies
Denote dSph

37. Putting it All Together The Original Tuning Fork
Original Hubble classification had a two-pronged system that described how these go together
Because he didn’t have intermediate bars (SAB)
With the De Vaucouleurs system, it is now a three pronged fork
And the “tines” have gotten longer

38. The Updated Tuning Fork

39. Can we explain these differences?
Differences - Spirals vs. Ellipticals
Spirals have disks and spiral structure
Spirals have dust/gas/young stars in the disk
Ellipticals have hot gas spread out through a large halo
Can we explain these differences?

40. Hot Gas vs. Cool Gas Hot gas has low density
Atoms cool off by colliding and radiating light
But at low density, collisions are rare
Low density gas cools slowly
Will not cool off in age of universe
Hot gas has pressure:
Gravity vs. pressure = sphere
An elliptical galaxy
Cool gas has high density
High density gas collides more often
And then can radiated that energy
Can cool off further in short time
Cool gas has little pressure, but still has rotation
Gravity vs. rotation = disk
A spiral (or barred spiral) galaxy

41. What Determines Galaxy Type?
If we have a source of cool gas:
Gas will form a disk
Disk will form stars
There will be young stars
If all gas is hot:
Gas remains in a giant halo, no disk
No star formation
No young stars
Conclusion: If you have a source of cool gas, you get a spiral or barred spiral, otherwise get elliptical

42. What Happens When Galaxies Collide?
Galaxy Collisions
What Happens When Galaxies Collide?
When two galaxies collide or nearly collide, what happens?
The stars do not collide with each other
The separation between them is very great
But the clouds of gas in them can collide
Also, the two galaxies can gravitationally influence each other
Even if they miss each other
Galaxy collisions take millions of years to occur
We don’t see any change in real time
But we can see galaxies in mid-collision
And we can see galaxies that have already collided

43. Near Miss Collisions
Suppose a galaxy of mass M is passing by another galaxy
As it passes, it pulls on each of the stars in the other galaxy
Let’s say it passes a star with an impact parameter b
And it is currently y from its closest point
The gravitational acceleration is
The position is continually changing
We need to integrate the acceleration over time b y

44. Tidal Friction
Not surprisingly, the closer and more massive the impactor is, the more effect it has
Perhaps surprisingly, the slower it moves, the more effect it has
Note that stars in different positions will have unequal accelerations
This effect is called tidal forces
The average acceleration will simply cause the entire galaxy to accelerate in the direction of the passing object
The passing object also accelerates towards the other
This just causes them to orbit each other
The differences in acceleration means that kinetic energy is being added to the internal motion of the stars in the galaxy
Causes the galaxy to expand
This “heating up” of the internal energy of the galaxy is called tidal friction b

45. Orbital Decay Suppose one galaxy is in orbit around the other
Each time it goes around, kinetic energy goes into the internal energy of the galaxies
This does disturb both galaxies a little
Not surprisingly the small galaxy is affected more
Where does the energy come from?
It must come from the kinetic energy of the overall motion
The galaxy slows down – its orbit gets smaller
Over several cycles, it gradually spirals towards the other galaxy
Eventually, the two galaxies will undergo a true collision

46. True Galaxy Collisions
What happens depends on relative size of the two galaxies
Big + Small:
Small galaxy is completely disrupted
Stars enter large galaxy
Over time, they get absorbed
Galactic cannibalism
This is currently happening to our own galaxy
Sagittarius Dwarf and Canis Major Dwarf – currently being disrupted
Virgo Stellar Stream – a dead galaxy whose stars are being absorbed
Two comparable sized galaxies:
At high speed, the galaxies can pass each other
But gas clouds still collide
At low speed, the galaxies will merge

47. Comparable Size Galaxy Collisions
When comparable size galaxies collide, there are major consequences
Gas clouds collide
Gas compresses – can cause a dramatic sudden increase in star production
A starburst galaxy
Gas can get heated to high temperatures
Gas may get completely knocked out of the galaxies
If they collide at low speeds, the two galaxies will merge
Initially, the galaxy will be irregular (probably SAm or SBm or Im)
The energy converted to internal kinetic energy makes the resultant galaxy large in size
And, of course, increased mass
Depending on whether there is any cool gas left, eventually galaxy settles down to a spiral or elliptical

48. Starburst Galaxies Fast star formation
Caused by compression of gas from recent galaxy collisions

49. Colliding Galaxies – Images (1)

50. Colliding Galaxies – Images (2)

51. Colliding Galaxies – Images (3)

52. Milky Way Collision with Andromeda
Our galaxy is currently headed towards Andromeda, the nearest large galaxy
Distance about 780 kpc
Relative velocity measured by Doppler shift
Have to subtract Sun’s velocity around our galaxy
About 110 km/s
Transverse velocity measured recently by Hubble using proper motion
Very slow transverse motion
Suggests the two will collide, or nearly collide about 4 billion years from now
After initial encounter, two galaxies will probably merge “shortly” thereafter
MW - Andromeda Collision
Best guess is that after that, they will merge to make a large elliptical galaxy

53. Giant Elliptical Galaxies
In the centers of clusters of galaxies, many galaxies combine and merge
Collisions pretty much guarantee all the cold gas will be heated
It then will expand throughout the halo
The kinetic energy transferred to the stars causes the galaxy to become very large
And of course, it is very massive too
It will generally be almost spherical
These galaxies are now giant elliptical galaxies
The largest of these are the cD or central dominant galaxies
They are central because they tend to be at the center of clusters of galaxies

54. Looking Out = Looking Back
Light travels at about 0.3 pc per year
The farther away you are looking, the longer ago you are seeing
1 kpc  3.3 ky
1 Mpc  3.3 My
1 Gpc  3.3 Gyr
You can see back almost to the beginning of the Universe!

55. Galaxies Long Ago

56. Galaxies Long, Long Ago

57. Galaxies Long, Long Ago (Close Up)

58. How Were Galaxies Different in the Past?
Generally, galaxies were smaller
Because small galaxies combined a lot to make the galaxies we see today
Generally, spirals were more likely to be unbarred (SA) than barred (SB)
Because bars take a lot of time to form
There were more irregular galaxies back then
Because collisions were still building galaxies