1. The Transformation of Europe

2. The Protestant Reformation
Early sixteenth century + before
Political role of the Roman Catholic Church
Greed
Corruption
Materialism
All undermined spiritual authority of the church
Growing demand for personal involvement with God

3. The Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther ( ) attacks Roman Catholic church practices, 1517
Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors
Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new printing technology (increased literacy in Europe)
Luther’s expanded critique
Closure of monasteries
Translations of Bible into vernacular
End of priestly authority, especially the Pope
Return to biblical text for authority

4. The Demand for Reform Widespread enthusiasm for reform
German princes interested
Personal conviction
Opportunities for assertion of local control instead of Church authority
Laws passed prohibiting Roman Catholic observances in favor of Protestant doctrine
Martin Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521
1520s-1530s dissent spread throughout Germany and Switzerland

5. Reform outside Germany
Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany
Establish Protestant churches
England: King Henry VIII (r ) has conflict with Pope over requested divorce
England forms its own church by 1560 (Anglican)
France: John Calvin ( ) codifies Protestant teachings while in exile in Geneva
Geneva as model Protestant community
Missionaries
Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience reform movements
Lutherans, Anglicans, Calvinists

6. The Catholic Reformation
Roman Catholic church reacts
Refining doctrine, clarify differences between Catholicism and Protestantism, missionary activities to Protestants, attempt to renew spiritual activity
Council of Trent ( ) periodic meetings to discuss doctrine and reform
Establish strict standards of morality for clergy
Established schools and seminaries for training priests
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius Loyola ( )
Rigorous religious and secular education
Effective missionaries- help globalize Christianity

7. Witch Hunts
Most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics and Protestants
Late 15th century development in belief in Devil and human assistants
16th-17th centuries approximately 110,000 people put on trial, some 45,000 put to death
Vast majority females, usually single, widowed
Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc.
Secular courts more harsh than church
New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung

8. Religious Wars
Protestants and Roman Catholics fight in France ( )
Queen Mary I- “Bloody Mary”
1588 Philip II of Spain attacks England to force return to Catholicism
English destroy Spanish ships by sending flaming unmanned ships into the fleet
Netherlands rebel against Spain, gain independence by 1610

9. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
Holy Roman emperor attempts to force Bohemians in Germany to return to Roman Catholic Church
All of Europe becomes involved in conflict
Principal battleground: Germany
Political, economic issues involved
Approximately one-third of German population destroyed

10. Consolidation of Sovereign States
Emperor Charles V (r ) attempts to revive Holy Roman Empire as strong center of Europe
Through marriage, political alliances
Administrative structure based on local laws and customs; military used to put down rebellions
Ultimately fails
Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert greater independence
Foreign opposition from France, Ottoman Empire
Unlike China, India, Ottoman Empire, Europe does not develop as single empire, rather individual states
Charles V abdicates, retires to monastery in Spain

11. Europe in 1559

12. The New Monarchs
Italy had economic power through trade, manufacturing, finance
England, France, and Spain surge ahead in 16th century
Build centralized regimes
organize resources
limit nobility

13. The New Monarchs England: Henry VIII France: Louis XI, Francis I
Did not want to incite rebellion with new taxes
Fines and fees for royal services
Severed ties with RCC, confiscated monastic land and wealth
Increased responsibility of monarchy- provide poor relief, support for orphans, etc.
France: Louis XI, Francis I
Direct taxes on sales, households, and salt trade
Spain: Isabel and Fernando
Sales tax boosts Spanish royal income

14. The New Monarchs Enlarged administrative staffs
Collect taxes
Implement royal policies
French and Spanish maintained standing armies
English subjected nobles to comply with royal policies
Protestant Reformation allows new monarchs to seize church wealth and use it to expand power

15. The Spanish Inquisition
Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478
Original task: search for secret practitioners of Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants
Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in western hemisphere
Imprisonment, executions
Intimidated nobles who might have considered Protestantism
Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned
Promoted strict Roman Catholic orthodoxy in Spain

16. Constitutional States
England and Netherlands develop institutions of popular representation
England: Constitutional Monarchy
Limited powers of government
Recognized individual rights
Netherlands: Republic
Representative government
English Civil War,
Begins with opposition to royal taxes
Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex ritual, church hierarchy, opposed by Calvinist Puritans
King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash
King loses, is beheaded in 1649

17. The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)
Puritans take over, becomes a dictatorship
Monarchy restored in 1660, fighting resumes
Resolution with bloodless coup called Glorious Revolution
King James II deposed, daughter Mary and husband William of Orange take throne
Shared governance between crown and parliament

18. The Dutch Republic
King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists in Netherlands, 1566
Large-scale rebellion follows, by 1581 Netherlands declares independence
Based on a representative parliamentary system
Representatives organized local affairs
Harnessed popular support and used it to magnify state power
Merchants were especially prominent in political affairs- helped build commercial empires overseas

19. Absolute Monarchies
Theory of Divine Right of Kings- royal centralization
King derive authority from God
No role for nobles or commoners
Rebellion, dissent, etc. = rebellion against God
French absolutism designed by Cardinal Richelieu (under King Louis XIII, )
Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic conspiracies
Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base
Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists

20. Louis XIV (The “Sun King,” 1643-1715)
L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.”
Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes his court- demonstrates divine authority
Largest building in Europe
1,400 fountains
25,000 fully grown trees transplanted
Power centered in court
Support new industries
Build roads and canals
Abolish internal tariffs, encourage exports
Wage wars to expand French borders-> France as preeminent power in Europe

21. Absolutism in Russia: The Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917)
Russian empire established around trading city of Moscow- extends from Arctic to Caspian Sea to Siberia
Peter I (“the Great,” r )
Worked to modernize Russia on western European model
Developed modern Russian army, reformed Russian government bureaucracy, demanded changes in fashion: beards forbidden
Built new capital at St. Petersburg
Catherine II (“the Great”, r )
Huge military expansion
Partitions of Poland,
Social reforms at first, but end with Pugachev peasant rebellion ( )

22. The European States System
No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes-> interstate competition and war
Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War
European states to be recognized as sovereign and equal
Religious, other domestic affairs protected
Constant warfare among states:
Louis XIV tries to expand French borders into Germany, Netherlands, and Spain
Seven Years’ War ( )
Balance of Power tenuous- no state dominates another
Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly

23. Population Growth and Urbanization
Rapidly growing population due to Columbian Exchange
Improved nutrition
Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in 16th and 17th centuries)-> Replaces bread as staple of diet
Tomatoes, maize, peppers
Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague
Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall population decline by mid-17th century
Resistance to smallpox, dysentery, influenza, tuberculosis, typhus

24. Population Growth in Europe

25. Urbanization

26. Early Capitalism
Capitalism- Private parties offer goods and services on a free market and seek to take advantage of market conditions in order to profit from their activities
Own means of production
Private initiative, not government control
Accumulation of wealth since introduction of agriculture
Capitalism develops as businessmen build efficient networks of communication and transportation
Supply and demand determines prices

27. Early Capitalism Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern period
Banks hold funds, grant loans, publish newsletters
Insurance companies insure risky ventures like transoceanic voyages
Stock exchanges in major European cities for buying and selling shares
Joint-Stock Companies (English East India Company, VOC)
Spread risk of expensive business enterprises
Large-scale commercial ventures as foundation for global economy
Relationship with empire-building

28. Early Capitalism
Merchants highly influential in English and Dutch states
Government support- policies favorable of capitalist enterprises
Recognition of private property
Enforced contracts
Protected financial interests
Settled disputes over business transactions
Chartered joint-stock companies + authorized exploration, conquering, and colonization
Capitalism develops with imperialism
Imperial expansion + colonial rule + natural resources/commodities + distribution/transportation networks + foreign markets

29. Early Capitalism Capitalism encourages new manufacturing in Europe
Medieval guilds did not seek profits, only protection of markets and preservation of members in society
Discarded in favor of “putting-out” system- delivered raw materials to households in the country
Workers produce goods in exchange for wage
Entrepreneurs picked up finished goods and sold them on the market
Plentiful rural labor- cheap

30. Impact of Capitalism on the Social Order
Rural life
Improved access to manufactured goods
Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins depletion of the rural population
Higher incomes= more opportunity to pursue own economic interests
Serfs provide labor services for landowners in Russia/Eastern Europe
Tight law code enforces strict social hierarchy- restricts social and geographic mobility
Serfs and peasants of Eastern Europe provide raw materials and foods that fuel capitalist economic development in Western Europe

31. Impact of Capitalism on the Social Order
Ethics of Profit
Looked down on during medieval period- profiteers look to own advantage rather than the welfare of the community
Interest seen as unearned and immoral profit
Adam Smith ( )- society will prosper if individual can pursue economic interests
Major social change increases poverty in some sectors
Failure of those to help others in need causes social tension
Increase in crime- bandits, muggers
Witch-hunting (financially independent women)

32. Impact of Capitalism on the Social Order
Capitalism favors nuclear families as principal unit of society
Replace extended families- financial independence reduces need for family financial support
Gender changes as women enter income-earning work force
Love become more important to marriage
Increase in affection between parents and children

33. The Copernican Universe
Reconception of the Universe
Reliance on 2nd-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria
Motionless earth inside nine concentric spheres
Christians understand heaven as last sphere
Difficulty reconciling model with observed planetary movement
1543 Nicholas Copernicus of Poland breaks theory
Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine

34. The Scientific Revolution
Johannes Kepler (Germany, ) and Galileo Galilei (Italy, ) reinforce Copernican model
Isaac Newton ( ) revolutionizes study of physics
Rigorous challenge to church doctrines

35. The Enlightenment
Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and Church doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific analysis
John Locke (England, ), Baron de Montesquieu (France, ) attempt to discover natural laws of politics
Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes
Voltaire ( ), caustic attacks on Roman Catholic church: écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy”
Deism increasingly popular

36. The Theory of Progress
Assumption that Enlightenment thought would ultimately lead to human harmony, material wealth
Decline in authority of traditional organized religion