1. The plane crash and death of Prince George, (the Queen’s uncle) 1942
Local interest map:
The plane crash and death of Prince George, (the Queen’s uncle) 1942
Too many lines for black and white ?
Plane crashed on hillside due to inability of a seaplane to climb
The route of the S-25 Sunderland Mk III on 25th August, 1942

2. Relief depiction
The representation of topography contrasts with other map elements:
….. there is a third dimension (height) that varies continuously over space
It has several components such as height, slope, shape ->->-> points, lines, areas
It can be the major visual component of the map and affects the other elements
The techniques vary in how effective they are visually and quantitatively

3. 1. Sugar loafs Idealized depictions from a side or oblique view;
the only form of topography on early maps (pre-1700)

4. Modern use of sugar loafs
.. Includes fantasy maps !

5. 2. Hachures
Hachures are lines of varying width and length to depict slope steepness, drawn in the direction of steepest slope. This was the main type of relief depiction through the 19th century, lacking exact elevations.
In 1800 only 50 mountains heights were plotted worldwide

6. Disadvantages of hachures
Hachures were systematized in 1799, where line width is proportional to steepness.
Disadvantages of hachures
- time-consuming to produce, obscures other information
- not very effective except in mountainous terrain
Hachures with oblique illumination

7. Continuing use of hachures
Steep enbankments Mountain cliffs

8. 3. Contours
Accurate surveying of elevations in Canada was developed in the 19th century, but elevation heights became common in the 20th century.
A contour is an isarithm: line of equal elevation values 
Index contours – every 5th contour
Supplemented with spot heights

9. Contours Exploring Earth website - visualising contours
Exploring Earth website - visualising contours
Contours are mapped from
stereo-photography

10. NTS Contour Interval: (Normal, Hilly, Steep) 1:50,000 = 10, or 20, or 40m ; 1:250,000: 50m, or 100m, or 200m
Contour interval (the distance between contour lines) depends on terrain and map scale Index contours are symbolized as wider lines and usually every 5th contour.
Kechika 94L 1:250, >
Prince George, 93G15 1:50,000

11. Advantages of contours
it is the most quantitative method – easy to store elevations
it is the origin for most other techniques, and is familiar to many users
Disadvantages
it is abstract (there are no lines on the ground);  poorly suited to small scales
less visual, depending on: contour interval, landscape type, and experience.
These disadvantages were recognized early on and led to other methods …
1:50,000 Horseshoe Bay, BC :250,000 Banff, AB

12. 4. Hypsometric Tints The addition of colour to elevation levels,
first tried as early as 1830.
Colour schemes require graduation,
a logical sequence, realistic colours,
and the darkest enabling readable text.
Atlas of Canada online

13. Hypsometric Advantages
adds visual impact, mostly at small scale; easily applied and understood
Disadvantages
exaggerated terrace effect, no new real 'information' is added,
differential contrast with other elements, and mixed color associations, (green  with  forest, etc.)
which colour scheme?..  NOT the one below !

14. 5. Shaded relief
The addition of shadows to give the illusion of depth, with a NorthWest light source (at ~45 degrees elevation). It was introduced in the C19 but more widespread after 1960

15. Eduard Imhof
Eduard Imhof ( ) was a professor of cartography at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
His fame stems from his relief shading work on school maps and atlases.

16. Shaded relief Advantages
Highly visual, continuous in appearance (as in reality),
Can show detail and character of landscape; suitable over a variety of scales
Disadvantages
Manually - required artistic creation with pencil or air brush;
It was costly and often poorly rendered, some slopes can be very dark

17. Manual Hillshading examples

18. Combining contours and hillshading
See also this site:

19. BC – aeronautical map, 1:500,000 – contours, tints, shading

20. Columbia Icefield, 1981 … contours, shading and rock hachures
using imported swiss cartographers

21. 6. Tanaka illuminated contours
pioneered in the 1950s by Kitiro Tanaka applying shading theory to contours.
NW light source, white and black lines, variable width

22. Tanaka Advantages
- visual and is also quantitative;  and unlike shading, it did not require artistic ability Disadvantages Requires a non-white background; visually exaggerates terracing; poor image if not rugged terrain
Sooke, by Dolores Janzen

23. 7. Slope zones (Nose Hill Park, Calgary)
These were not common, as they could only be interpreted from contour maps, but show the importance of slope in determining human land use

24. PG Map – significant slopes

25. 8. 3D perspectives Advantage: the most visual portrayal of landscape
Disadvantages:   time-consuming to produce (before computers); no consistent scale

26. http://www. informationdesigned. com/html/maps/louise
(Eckhard Zeidler)

27. ‘Interesting’ local example … 3D sugar-loafs meet hobbits and skidoos

28. Physical Models: Challenger map (1947-54) 25 x 25 m ~1:50,000

30. Where is another 3D model?

31. Columbia Icefields 3D model

32. Summary of common relief depiction methods (prior to automation)
TECHNIQUE
COMPONENT
FEATURES
Sugar loafs
shape
stylistic 
Hachures
slope
too much ink, no heights
Spot Heights
elevation
sporadic info 
Contours
common but abstract
Hyps. tints
multiple colours
Shaded relief
aspect
Visual, artistic
Tanaka
visual but 'noisy'
Slope maps
uniform slope areas
3D perspectives
visual, costly, no scale
Physical models all true 3D – takes up space