1. Whip Around
Think about a time when you misunderstood someone’s language. Be prepared to share aloud this experience.
What caused the misunderstanding?
How could you have improved your communication?

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LANGUAGE

3. Our Agenda The Nature of Language Appreciating the Power of Words
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Our Agenda
The Nature of Language
Appreciating the Power of Words
The Use and Abuse of Language
Creating a Positive Communication Climate

4. The Nature of Language Language is symbolic English: barn
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The Nature of Language
Language is symbolic
English: barn
Dutch: schuur
Portuguese: celeiro
Greek: σιταποθήκη

5. Language Is Symbolic The Natural World Language Is Symbolic
Smoke means something is burning
A fever means someone is ill
Language Is Symbolic
Connection between words and the ideas or things they represent is arbitrary

6. The Nature of Language Language is arbitrary (mostly)
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The Nature of Language
Language is arbitrary (mostly)
Most words have only an arbitrary connection to their meanings
Words literally mean whatever we—as users of a language—choose for them to mean
An exception is onomatopoeia, a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning

7. The Nature of Language Language is governed by rules
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The Nature of Language
Language is governed by rules
Phonological rules
Syntactic rules
Semantic rules
Pragmatic rules
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8. The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning
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The Nature of Language
Language has layers of meaning
Denotative meaning: The literal or dictionary definition of a word
Connotative meaning: a word’s implications
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9. The Nature of Language The Semantic Triangle [referent] [symbol]
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The Nature of Language
The Semantic Triangle
[referent]
© Phillip Spears/Photodisc/PunchStock, RF, © BananaStock,PunchStock, RF
[symbol]
[reference]

10. The Nature of Language Language has layers of meaning
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The Nature of Language
Language has layers of meaning
Loaded language comprises words with strongly positive or negative connotative meanings
Cancer
Peace
Family
Freedom
The denotative meanings of loaded language may be emotionally neutral

11. The Nature of Language Language varies in clarity
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The Nature of Language
Language varies in clarity
Some language is ambiguous
Language varies in abstraction
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12. The Ladder of Abstraction
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The Nature of Language
The Ladder of Abstraction
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13. Understandings and Misunderstandings
Abstraction
Is vague in nature
Behavioral language is specific to things people do or say
Abstraction Ladder
Highly abstract language can lead to blanket judgments
Figure 5.1

14. Understanding and Misunderstanding
Understanding Words
Semantic rules=how we assign meanings to symbols
“Bikes” are for riding and “books” are for reading
Equivocation
Statements that have more than one commonly accepted definition
E.g. trees can break wind or 20-year friendships end at the altar

15. Understanding and Misunderstanding
Relative Language
Words that gain their meaning by comparison
Static Evaluation
Statements that contain or imply the word is lead to mistaken assumptions about people
E.g. Maggie is a nervous woman.

16. Understandings and Misunderstandings
Syntactic Rules
Govern the grammar of language
Pragmatic Rules
Govern the way speech works in everyday interaction
Communication as a cooperative game; all players in a game needed just like determining the rules of speech
Coordination=the way conversation works when everyone plays by the same rules

17. Understandings and Misunderstandings
Pragmatic Rules
Some rules shared by most people in a culture
People in their own individual relationships create their own sets of rules

18. The Nature of Language Language is bound by context and culture
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The Nature of Language
Language is bound by context and culture
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Linguistic determinism
Linguistic relativity
The merit of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has been widely questioned by researchers

19. Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles
Language and Worldview
Linguistic relativism
The worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis=a hypothesis, first advanced by Edward Sapir in 1929 and subsequently developed by Benjamin Whorf, that the structure of a language determines a native speaker's perception and categorization of experience.

20. Appreciating the Power of Words
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Appreciating the Power of Words
Names define and differentiate us
We make assumptions about people on the basis of their names
William vs. Billy
Susan vs. Suzie
Naming practices vary by sex, ethnicity, religion, and age

21. The Impact of Language Naming and Identity
Names are more than just a simple means of identification
They shape the way others think of us
They shape the way we view ourselves
They shape the way we act

22. The Impact of Language Affiliation
Speech can build and demonstrate solidarity with others
Convergence
The process of adapting one’s speech style to match others
Divergence
Speaking in a way that emphasizes one’s differences from others

23. The Impact of Language Powerless Language Hedges Hesitations
Kinda, think, guess
Hesitations
Uh, well, er
Intensifiers
Really, very
Polite forms
Sir, madam
Tag questions
Isn’t it? Don’t you think..?
Disclaimers
I probably shouldn’t say this but
Rising inflections=making a statement a question
This is Dr. Brown? The test is tomorrow?

24. The Impact of Language Powerless Language
Powerful speech is culturally based
Language that is too powerful may intimidate
In some situations, polite forms of speech can enhance effectiveness

25. The Impact of Language Three linguistic habits to avoid
Disruptive language
Three linguistic habits to avoid
Fact-Opinion Confusion
E.g. You forgot out anniversary; you don’t care about our marriage
Fact-Inference Confusion
E.g. Why are you mad? I’m not mad. Well, you look mad. Stop analyzing me. I'm not I just want to know why you are mad.
Emotive Language
Try to describe something but your emotion is displayed
E.g. I think that is thrifty (you approve). It looks cheap (you disapprove)

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Whip Around

27. Appreciating the Power of Words
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Appreciating the Power of Words
We use words to persuade
Appeals to ethos rely on a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character
Appeals to pathos rely on listeners’ emotions
Appeals to logos rely on listeners’ ability to reason

28. Appreciating the Power of Words
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Appreciating the Power of Words
Credibility empowers us
Credibility is the extent to which others perceive us to be competent and trustworthy
Several forms of language can enhance or diminish credibility
Clichés
Dialects
Equivocation
Weasel words
Allness statements

29. Appreciating the Power of Words
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Appreciating the Power of Words
Language expresses affection and intimacy
Affectionate language can establish and maintain our close relationships
Giving and receiving affection are good for our health
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30. Appreciating the Power of Words
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Appreciating the Power of Words
Words provide comfort and healing
We use language to comfort those in need
We also use language to comfort ourselves
© AP Images/Victor R. Caivano

31. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Humor violates expectations
Humor can enhance communication
Putting others at ease
Defusing stress and reinforcing intimacy
Humor can be harmful
Demeaning social or cultural groups
Offending or harassing others

32. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Euphemisms are vague, mild expressions symbolizing something more harsh or blunt
Operational exhaustion  battle fatigue  shell shock  posttraumatic stress disorder
Can provide a way to talk about sensitive topics
Can also desensitize people to important issues

33. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Slang comprises informal words often understood only by others in a particular group
Jargon is the slang associated with a particular occupation or profession
Can differentiate in-group and out-group members
Can also alienate outsiders

34. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Libel and slander are defamatory statements made about others
Libel is a defamatory statement made in print or some other fixed medium
Slander is a defamatory statement made aloud, within earshot of others

35. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Profanity is rude or obscene language
Profanity is context-specific
Can serve to put people at ease
Can also serve to insult or degrade others

36. The Use and Abuse of Language
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The Use and Abuse of Language
Hate speech is a form of profanity meant to degrade or intimidate people based on personal characteristics, such as their:
Sex
Ethnicity
Religion
Sexual orientation
Disability status
Political or moral views

37. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Use confirming messages
Recognition
Acknowledgement
Endorsement

38. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Avoid the use of disconfirming messages
Impervious response
Verbal abuse
Generalized complaining
Irrelevant response
Impersonal response

39. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Avoid making others defensive
Evaluation versus description
Control versus problem orientation
Strategy versus spontaneity
Neutrality versus empathy
Superiority versus equality
Certainty versus provisionalism

40. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Provide effective feedback
Non-evaluative feedback
Probing
Paraphrasing
Evaluative feedback
Providing praise
Offering support
Criticizing constructively

41. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Own your thoughts and feelings
I-statements claim ownership of what a communicator is thinking or feeling
“I am mad right now”
You-statements shift that responsibility to the other person
“You are making me mad”
(The Breakup)

42. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Separate opinions from factual claims
Factual claims can be verified with evidence and shown to be true or false
“Candidate C has more experience in government”
Opinions express personal judgments that we can agree or disagree with, but that are not true or false in an absolute sense
“Candidate L is a better choice for our future”

43. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
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Creating a Positive Communication Climate
Create positive climates in electronically mediated communication
Don’t expect feedback to be immediate
Be careful not to use mediated communication as a shield
Get permission before sharing other people’s photos
Pay attention to auto-correct
Reflect on messages instead of reacting

44. Gender and Language Content Female friends spent more time discussing:
Relationship problems, family, health
Male friends spent more time discussing:
Current events, music, sports, business
These differences can lead to frustration when men and women try to converse with one another

45. Gender and Language Reasons for Communicating
Men and women use language to build and maintain social relationships
How men and women accomplish these goals is different
Men more likely to make conversation fun
Women’s discussions tend to involve feelings, relationships, and personal problems

46. Gender and Language Conversational Style
The myth that women are more talkative than men does not hold up under scientific scrutiny
Women ask more questions in same-sex conversations
Men’s speech is more characteristically direct, succinct, task-oriented
Women’s speech is more typically indirect, elaborate, focused on relationships

47. Gender and Language Conversational Style
Women typically use statements showing support for the other person
The importance of nurturing a relationship explains why female speech is often tentative
Accommodating style isn’t always a disadvantage

48. Gender and Language Nongender Variables
Ways women and men communicate much more similar than different
Male and female supervisors behave the same way and are equally effective
Other factors influence language use
Social philosophy
Gender role
(the office)

49. Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles Low-context cultures
Generally value language to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible.
High-context cultures
Generally value using language to maintain social harmony.
Learn to discover meaning from the context in which a message is delivered: nonverbal behaviors, history of the relationship, etc.

50. Culture and Language Verbal Communication Styles
Language styles can vary across culture
Elaborate – Succinct
Americans use succinct language
Arabic speakers are elaborate in language
Formality – Informality
Informal cultures include the US, Canada, and Australia
Formal cultures include parts of Asia and Africa

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Chapter 5 Quiz