1. Unit 2: Research Methods
A.P. Psychology

2. Essential Question
How do psychologists conduct scientific research, and how do they apply their findings to better understanding human behavior?

3. The Need for Scientific Research in Psychology
Hindsight Bias:
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
The “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
E.g. “Monday Morning Quarterbacking”

4. The Need for Scientific Research in Psychology
Can you think of an example of Hindsight Bias?
Personal life
School
News/Media
Entertainment/Pop culture
Psychological/Scientific research

5. The Need for Scientific Research in Psychology
How much time do you think it will take you to unscramble these anagrams?
People said it would take
10 seconds, but on average
it took about 3 minutes
Anagram
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
GRABE
BARGE

6. The Need for Scientific Research in Psychology
Overconfidence:
The tendency to believe that one knows more than he/she actually does
Leads to error and misjudgment

7. The Scientific Attitude
Curiosity (Passion for exploration)
Skepticism (Doubting and questioning)
Humility (Ability to accept responsibility when wrong)
Psychological researchers must also think critically

8. The Scientific Method The Scientific Method: Question Hypothesis
Experiment
Results
Conclusions
Theory

9. The Scientific Method

10. The Scientific Method Operational Definition: Replication:
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
E.g. Intelligence may be defined by one’s IQ
Replication:
Ability to repeat a research study, with different participants in different situations
Determine whether basic findings extend beyond a single research study

11. Review
Why is it important for psychologists to conduct scientific research?
What is hindsight bias? Provide an example.
What are the 3 main components of the scientific attitude?
What are the 6 steps of the scientific method?

12. Unit 2 (B): Non-Experimental Research Designs
A.P. Psychology

13. Do-Now (In Journal)
Think of a psychological phenomenon that you would be interested to research (a behavior, habit, disorder, etc.)
Briefly describe how you could hypothetically carry out your research

14. Pre-Research Decisions
Population:
All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
E.g. The entire JBHS student body (2,700 students)
Sample:
Small group of participants, out of a total population, that a researcher studies
Representative vs. Non-representative
E.g. 200 JBHS students

15. Pre-Research Decisions
What might a representative sample of JBHS students look like?
How could we effectively get a representative sample of JBHS students?

16. Pre-Research Decisions
Random Sample:
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

17. Non-Experimental Research Designs
Naturalistic Observation:
Observation of subject(s) in a natural setting without manipulating or controlling the situation (e.g. watching teenagers in a mall)
Case Study:
Intensive investigation of participant(s) (e.g. long-term interviews, living with participants, journals, video blogs)
Survey:
Information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions (e.g. questionnaire on self-reported attitudes or behaviors)

18. Non-Experimental Research Designs
Longitudinal Study:
Studying a group of participants over a number of years (e.g. following a group of high school freshmen throughout their high school career)
Cross-Sectional Study:
Studying groups of participants of different ages and comparing them to draw conclusions about age (e.g. studying a group of freshmen and seniors)

19. Non-Experimental Research Designs
Think of an example in which each of the following research designs would be most effective:
Naturalistic Observation
Case Study
Survey
Longitudinal Study
Cross-Sectional Study

20. Correlation Correlation:
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together (and how well one factor predicts the other)
Does not demonstrate causation
Can be positive or negative
Can be illusory (appears to be relationship where none exists)
Measured with scatterplots
Measured by a correlation coefficient “r” (-1 to +1)

21. What naturally-existing correlations can you think of?

22. Correlation Positive Correlation: Direct relationship
Both factors increase together; Both factors decrease together
E.g. Amount of sleep and GPA
Right: Perfect Positive Correlation (r=+1.00)

23. Height and Temperament in Men

24. Correlation Negative Correlation: Inverse relationship
One factor increases, while the other decreases
E.g. Physical exercise and fat content
Right: Perfect Negative Correlation (r=-1.00)

25. Correlation
What do you think a scatterplot would look like for two factors that are not correlated?
What would its correlation coefficient be?
r=0.00

26. Correlation ≠ Causation

27. Review What is the difference between a population and a sample?
How could one effectively create a representative sample?
What is the difference between a positive and negative correlation?
What are some implications of a correlation?

28. Unit 2 (C): Experimental Research Designs
A.P. Psychology

29. Do-Now (Discussion) What is a correlation?
What is a positive correlation?
What is the correlation coefficient (r) for a perfect positive correlation?
What does a positive correlation look like?
Provide an example of two things that may be positively correlated.
What is a negative correlation?
What is the correlation coefficient (r) for a perfect negative correlation?
What does a negative correlation look like?
Provide an example of two things that may be negatively correlated.

30. Non-Experimental Research Designs
Activity:
With a partner, create an example of a psychological phenomenon a psychologist would likely study for any 2 of the following non-experimental research designs. Explain why.
Naturalistic Observation
Case Study
Survey
Longitudinal Study
Cross-Sectional Study
Correlation
For each example, provide a short explanation of why each research design would be most preferable for that scenario

31. Experimental Research Designs
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable)

32. Experimental Research Designs
Why might psychological researchers prefer experimental research designs over descriptive or correlational research designs?
What type of research might require an experimental design?

33. Experimental Research Designs
Experiments begin with a hypothesis
(e.g. “Caffeine improves test performance”)

34. Experimental Research Designs
Experimenters must employ variables:
Independent Variable:
Manipulated/changed by experimenter to observe its effects (e.g. Coffee/Redbull)
Dependent Variable:
The effects/changes that occur in relation to the independent variable (e.g. improved test performance)
Confounding Variables:
Factors other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment (e.g. one’s natural intelligence)

35. Experimental Research Designs
Experimenters divide participants into two groups (often randomly):
Experimental Group:
Independent variable is applied (e.g. Coffee is given to participants)
Control Group:
Treated the same way as experimental group, but independent variable is not applied (e.g. No coffee is given to participants)

36. Experimental Research Designs
Why would experimenters
wish to employ an experimental and a control group?

37. Experimental Research Designs
Does breast-feeding a child improve their intelligence later in life?

38. Review Hypothesis Independent Variable Dependent Variable
A psychologist wishes to test the effects of cell phone use on driving. To do so, he creates an experiment in which 80 participants partake in a driving test. 40 participants must talk on their phone while driving, while 40 participants may not. Identify the following:
Hypothesis
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Confounding Variables
Experimental Group
Control Group

39. Unit 2 (D): Problems and Solutions in Research
A.P. Psychology

40. Problems in Experimental Research
What types of problems do you think psychological researchers may encounter when conducting experimental research?

41. Problems in Experimental Research
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:
Researcher’s expectations influence his/her own behavior, and thereby influence the participant’s behavior (e.g. thinking a subject will respond in a certain way, and unassumingly acting in a manner that will cause the subject to then do so)

42. Problems in Experimental Research
Have you ever experienced a “self-fulfilling prophecy?”

43. Problems in Experimental Research
Placebo Effect:
A change in a participant’s behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment (e.g. participant thinks he/she is receiving “Red Bull,” but instead receives non-caffeinated soda, and still “feels energized”)

44. Solutions in Experimental Research
How can psychological researchers avoid self-fulfilling prophecies and placebo effects when conducting experimental research?

45. Solutions in Experimental Research
Single-Blind Procedure:
Participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)
Double-Blind Procedure:
Participants and experimenter(s) are unaware of which participants received the treatment (e.g. participants and experimenter(s) do not know which participants received “Red Bull”)

46. Solutions in Experimental Research
How do single-blind and
double-blind procedures
help avoid self-fulfilling prophecies on behalf of the experimenter
and participants?

47. Comparing Research Methods

48. Review What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in psychological research?
What is a placebo effect?
Identify two ways in which researchers can avoid a self-fulfilling prophecy on behalf of the researcher(s) and participant(s)?

49. Unit 2 (E): Ethics in Psychological Research
A.P. Psychology

50. Ethics in Psychological Research
What do ethics refer to in psychological research?
How is it determined whether or not a psychological study is ethical?
Who determines this?

51. Ethics in Psychological Research
The methods of conduct/standards for proper and responsible behavior among psychological researchers
Published by the American Psychological Association (A.P.A.) in 1992

52. Ethics in Psychological Research
Ethical Principles in Psychology (A.P.A.):
Informed Consent must be obtained
Information about participants must be treated confidentially
Protection against physical/psychological harm
Limited deception; only if absolutely necessary
Participants must be debriefed afterward
Research proposals must first be screened by Institutional Review Board (I.R.B.)

53. Review
Think about a psychological study that you have learned about that you feel may be viewed as unethical today.
In what ways is this study unethical?
How might it be adapted to meet the ethical standards of the A.P.A.?

54. Unit 2 (F): Statistics in Psychological Research: Measures of Central Tendency
A.P. Psychology

55. Do-Now: (In Journal) What are statistics?
Why are statistics important in social sciences?
How are the following measures of central tendency found?
Mean
Median
Mode

56. Statistics in Psychology
The collection, classification, analysis, and interpretation of numerical psychological data
Descriptive Statistics:
Describes collected data
Frequency Distribution:
Bar Graph
Histogram

57. Statistics in Psychology
Types of Psychological Data:
Nominal:
Categorical
Non-numerical; cannot compute mean
Bar graph
E.g. Favorite ice cream flavor
Ordinal:
Ordered
E.g. 1st place, 2nd place, 3rd place

58. Statistics in Psychology
Can you think of another example of Nominal and Ordinal data?

59. Statistics in Psychology
Types of Psychological Data:
Interval:
Equal interval between points;
no true zero point
Numerical; can compute mean
Histogram
E.g. Degrees in Fahrenheit
Ratio:
true zero point
E.g. Height/weight

60. Statistics in Psychology
Can you think of another example of Interval and Ratio data?

61. Measures of Central Tendency
Mean:
The arithmetic average of a distribution
Obtained by adding all scores together, and dividing by the number of scores
Median:
The middle score of a distribution
Half of the scores are above it and half are below it
Mode:
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

62. Distributions Normal Distribution:
Symmetrical, Bell-shaped distribution
Mean, Median, Mode all are the same

63. Distributions Skewed Distribution:
Positively skewed; “Skewed to the Right”
Negatively skewed; “Skewed to the Left”

64. Distributions
What types of situations might cause a “positively-skewed” distribution?
What types of situations might cause a “negatively-skewed” distribution?

65. Positively Skewed Distribution
Distributions
Positively Skewed Distribution

66. Review Differentiate between the following types of data:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
What is a normal distribution?
What is the difference between a positively and negatively-skewed distribution?

67. Unit 2 (G): Statistics in Psychological Research: Measures of Variation
A.P. Psychology

68. Do-Now: (Discussion)
Differentiate between the 4 types of psychological data:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
What is a normal distribution?
What is the difference between a positively and negatively-skewed distribution?

69. Measures of Variation Range: Standard Deviation:
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation:
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Z-score:
Number of standard deviations a score is from the mean

70. Normal Distribution

71. Measures of Variation

72. Review Differentiate between the measures of variation:
Range
Standard Deviation
What is a Z-score? How is it computed?