1. PSYCHOLOGY (8th Edition) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006

2. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1
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3. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
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4. Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants.
Taxi/ Getty Images

5. Errors of Common Sense Try this !
Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.
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6. Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did plummet.
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
Two phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.
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7. Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along.
Only after Kerry won the Iowa Primary, did people begin to say that Dean was too liberal. What would people say about Kerry if Dean won?

8. Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
GRABE
BARGE
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9. Overconfidence We tend to think we know more than we do.
82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of their group in terms of safety
81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their peers, the answer was only 39%. (Now that's overconfidence!!!)

10. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
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11. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
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12. Scientific Method Observe some aspect of the universe.
Invent a theory that is consistent with what you have observed.
Use the theory to make predictions.
Test those predictions by experiments or further observations.
Modify the theory in the light of your results.
Go to step 3.

13. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
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14. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

15. Hypothesis Have operational definitions. Be replicable.
A tentative theory that has not yet been tested.
Have operational definitions.
Be replicable.

16. Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

17. Research Process

18. Types of Research
Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental

19. Descriptive Research Any research that observes and records.
What is going on in this picture?
We cannot say exactly, but we can describe what we see.
Thus we have…..
Descriptive Research
Any research that observes and records.
Does not talk about relationships, it just describes.

20. Types of Descriptive Research
The Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation

21. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
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22. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

23. The Case Study Where one person (or situation) is observed in depth.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a tragedy like the Columbine School Shootings as a case study?

24. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
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25. The Survey Method
Used in both descriptional and correlational research.
Use Interview, mail, phone, internet etc…
The Good- cheap, anonymous, diverse population, and easy to get random sampling (a sampling that represents your population you want to study).

26. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

27. Why do we sample?
One reason is the False Consensus Effect: the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

28. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
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29. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in natural environment.
No control- just an observer.
What are the benefits and detriments of Naturalistic Observation?

30. Correlational Research
Detects relationships between variables.
Does NOT say that one variable causes another.
There is a positive correlation between ice cream and murder rates. Does that mean that ice cream causes murder?

31. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
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32. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.

33. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

34. Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of

35. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
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36. Disconfirming evidence
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do not
adopt
Adopt
Do not conceive
Conceive
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
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37. Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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38. Order in Random Events
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
OBJECTIVE 11| Explain the human tendency to perceive order in random events.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
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39. The Experiment
Only research method capable of showing cause and effect

40. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

41. Steps in Designing an Experiment
Hypothesis
Pick Population: Random Selection then Random Assignment.
Operationalize the Variables
Identify Independent and Dependent Variables.
Look for Extraneous Variables
Type of Experiment: Blind, Double Blind etc..
Gather Data
Analyze Results

42. Variables Independent Variable (I.V.): manipulated by experimenter
Dependent Variable (D.V.): MEASURED variable influenced by independent
Operational definition
Confounding/extraneous variables

43. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
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44. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

45. Population – The larger group of people from which a sample is drawn
Sample: Representative of the population
Two ways to get sample
Random: Every member of the pop has = chance
Stratified: Sample is put together by picking a
group statistically equal to the population

46. Experimental Vocabulary
Independent Variable: factor that is manipulated
Dependent Variable: factor that is measured
Extraneous Variables: factors that effect DV, that are not IV.
Experimental Group: Group exposed to IV
Control Group: Group not exposed to IV
Placebo: inert substance that is in place of IV in Control Group

47. Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
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48. Control Measures Counterbalance: controls for order effects
Single-Blind: subject unaware of assignment
Double-Blind: subject and experimenter unaware of placement
Randomization
From population (sample)
From assignment to groups (assignment)

49. Double-blind Procedure
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
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50. Control Group No treatment or placebo Serves as basis for comparison
Serves to eliminate alternative explanations

51. Analyze Results
Use measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode).
Use measures of variation (range and standard deviation).

52. A summary of steps during experimentation.

53. Other Research Methods
Ex Post Facto (after the fact)
- Independent variable already present
- Not a true independent variable, no cause and effect
- Often used due to ethical concerns
Naturalistic Observation
- Natural setting: behavior is not interfered with or altered
Survey Method
- Gathers data on attitudes and behaviors.
Case Study
- Intense/in-depth study of an individual or small group
Correlation
– shows the relationship between two variables

54. Flaws in Research Sampling Bias Overgeneralization Placebo effect
Hawthorne/Barnum effect
Demand Characteristics
Experimenter Bias

55. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF
Evaluating Research
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF
Experiment
Correlation
Surveys
Naturalistic Observation
Case Studies

56. Below is a comparison of different research methods.

57. APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Research goes before an institution review board (IRB)for approval
Informed Consent: Subjects informed of significant factors that may influence willingness to participate
Deception
Coercion: Participants are free to withdraw at any time
Anonymity
DO NO HARM
Debriefing Procedures

58. Ethics in Research with Animals
1. (Purpose) They must have a clear scientific purpose. The research
must answer a specific, important scientific question. Animals are chosen because they are best-suited to answer the question at hand.
2. (Care) They must care for and house animals in a humane way.
3. (Acquiring animals) They must acquire animal subjects legally.
Animals must be purchased from accredited companies. If wild
Animals must be used, they need to be trapped in a humane way.
4. (Suffering aka DO NO HARM) They must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible.
5. (Supervision) A trained psychologist must supervise all research with
animals

59. Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of statistical principles, and give an example of their use in daily life.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
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60. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
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61. Data showing height and temperament in people.

62. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
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63. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

64. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
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65. Standard Deviation

66. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
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67. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples.
Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
More cases are better than fewer cases.
OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.
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68. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
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