1. Assembly Language and Computer Organization
CMSC 313
Assembly Language and Computer Organization
Topics:
Theme
Programming in C
Great realities of computer systems
How this fits within CS curriculum
Logistical issues

2. Course Theme Most CS courses emphasize abstraction
Abstraction is good, but don’t forget reality!
Most CS courses emphasize abstraction
Abstract data types
Asymptotic analysis
These abstractions have limits
Especially in the presence of bugs
Need to understand underlying implementations
Useful outcomes
Become more effective programmers
Able to find and eliminate bugs efficiently
Able to tune program performance
Prepare for later “systems” classes in CS & ECE
Compilers, Operating Systems, Networks, Computer Architecture, Embedded Systems

3. Programming in C
We assume you have experience in Java or other high-level language (e.g. C++) that uses the same syntax
C is “closer” to the hardware than other languages
You are responsible for everything that happens
Array index validation
You must understand how the computer works to write efficient, portable code
Pointers, dynamic memory allocation must be handled by your code
Powerful, but dangerous
No garbage collector like Java
Functions are the focus, there are no objects
Encapsulation is difficult at best

4. Memory Referencing Errors
C and C++ do not provide any memory protection
Out of bounds array references
Invalid pointer values
Abuses of malloc/free
Can lead to nasty bugs
Whether or not bug has any effect depends on system and compiler
Action at a distance
Corrupted object logically unrelated to one being accessed
Effect of bug may be first observed long after it is generated
How can I deal with this?
Program in Java or ML
Understand what possible interactions may occur
Use or develop tools to detect referencing errors

5. Great Reality #1 Ints are not Integers, Floats are not Reals Examples
Is x2 ≥ 0?
Floats: Yes!
Ints:
40000 * >
50000 * > ??
Is (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)?
Unsigned & Signed Ints: Yes!
Floats:
(1e e20) > 3.14
1e20 + (-1e ) --> ??

6. Computer Arithmetic Does not generate random values
Arithmetic operations have important mathematical properties
Cannot assume “usual” properties
Due to finiteness of representations
Integer operations satisfy “ring” properties
Commutativity, associativity, distributivity
Floating point operations satisfy “ordering” properties
Monotonicity, values of signs
Observation
Need to understand which abstractions apply in which contexts
Important issues for compiler writers and serious application programmers

7. Great Reality #2 You’ve got to know assembly
Chances are, you’ll never write a program in assembly
Compilers are much better & more patient than you are
Understanding assembly key to machine-level execution model
Behavior of programs in presence of bugs
High-level language model breaks down
Tuning program performance
Understanding sources of program inefficiency
Implementing system software
Compiler has machine code as target
Operating systems must manage process state
Creating / fighting malware
x86 assembly is the language of choice!

8. Assembly Code Example Time Stamp Counter Application
Special 64-bit register in Intel-compatible machines
Incremented every clock cycle
Read with rdtsc instruction
Application
Measure time required by procedure
In units of clock cycles
double t;
start_counter();
P();
t = get_counter();
printf("P required %f clock cycles\n", t);

9. Code to Read Counter
Write small amount of assembly code using GCC’s asm facility
Inserts assembly code into machine code generated by compiler
static unsigned cyc_hi = 0;
static unsigned cyc_lo = 0;
/* Set *hi and *lo to the high and low order bits
of the cycle counter. */
void access_counter(unsigned *hi, unsigned *lo) {
asm("rdtsc; movl %%edx,%0; movl %%eax,%1"
: "=r" (*hi), "=r" (*lo) :
: "%edx", "%eax"); }

10. Great Reality #3
Memory Matters: Random Access Memory is an un-physical abstraction
Memory is not unbounded
It must be allocated and managed
Many applications are memory dominated
Memory referencing bugs especially pernicious
Effects are distant in both time and space
Memory performance is not uniform
Cache and virtual memory effects can greatly affect program performance
Adapting program to characteristics of memory system can lead to major speed improvements

11. Memory Referencing Bug Example
double fun(int i) {
double d[1] = {3.14};
long int a[2];
a[i] = ; /* Possibly out of bounds */
return d[0]; }
fun(0) –> 3.14
fun(1) –> 3.14
fun(2) –>
fun(3) –>
fun(4) –> 3.14, then segmentation fault

12. Referencing Bug Explanation
Saved State
d7 … d4
d3 … d0
a[1]
a[0] 4 3
Location accessed
by fun(i) 2 1
C does not implement bounds checking
Out of range write can affect other parts of program state

13. Memory System Performance Example
void copyij(int src[2048][2048],
int dst[2048][2048]) {
int i,j;
for (i = 0; i < 2048; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 2048; j++)
dst[i][j] = src[i][j]; }
void copyji(int src[2048][2048],
int dst[2048][2048]) {
int i,j;
for (j = 0; j < 2048; j++)
for (i = 0; i < 2048; i++)
dst[i][j] = src[i][j]; }
59,393,288 clock cycles
1,277,877,876 clock cycles
(Measured on 2GHz
Intel Pentium 4)
21.5 times slower!
Hierarchical memory organization
Performance depends on access patterns
Including how step through multi-dimensional array

14. Read throughput (MB/s) Working set size (bytes)
The Memory Mountain s1 s3 s5 s7 s9
s11
s13
s15 8m 2m
512k
128k
32k 8k 2k
Pentium III Xeon
1200
copyij
550 MHz
16 KB on-chip L1 d-cache
16 KB on-chip L1 i-cache
1000 L1
512 KB off-chip unified
L2 cache
800
Read throughput (MB/s)
copyji
600
400 xe L2
200
Mem
Stride (words)
Working set size (bytes)

15. Great Reality #4 Computers do more than execute programs
They need to get data in and out
I/O system critical to program reliability and performance
They communicate with each other over networks
Many system-level issues arise in presence of network
Concurrent operations by autonomous processes
Coping with unreliable media
Cross platform compatibility
Complex performance issues

16. Role within Curriculum
CMSC 411
Architecture
CMSC 421
Operating
Systems
CMSC 431
Compilers
Processes
Mem. Mgmt
C Programming
Machine Code
Exec. Model
Memory System
CMSC 313
Systems
Foundation of Computer Systems
Underlying principles for hardware, software
CMSC 201
Intro to
Programming
CMSC 202
OOP in Java

17. Course Perspective Most Systems Courses are Builder-Centric
Computer Architecture
Design pipelined processor in Verilog
Operating Systems
Implement large portions of operating system
Compilers
Write compiler for simple language
Networking
Implement and simulate network protocols

18. Course Perspective (Cont.)
Our Course is Programmer-Centric
Purpose is to show how by knowing more about the underlying system, one can be more effective as a programmer
Enable you to
Write programs that are more reliable and efficient
Incorporate features that require hooks into OS
E.g., concurrency, signal handlers
Not just a course for dedicated hackers
We bring out the hidden hacker in everyone
Cover material in this course that you won’t see elsewhere

19. Textbooks Randal E. Bryant and David R. O’Hallaron,
“Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective”, Prentice Hall 2003.
This book really matters for the course!
How to solve labs
Practice problems typical of exam problems
Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie,
“The C Programming Language, Second Edition”, Prentice Hall, 1988
The “C” bible

20. Course Components Lectures Projects Exams Higher level concepts
The heart of the course
2 or 3 weeks
Provide experience writing C programs
Provide in-depth understanding of an aspect of systems
Exams
Test your understanding of concepts & mathematical principles
Critical component of grade

21. Getting Help Class Web Page BlackBoard Email
Copies of lectures, assignments, exams, solutions
Clarifications to assignments
BlackBoard
Clarifications to assignments, general discussion
The only board your instructors will be monitoring

22. Policies: Assignments
Work groups
Some projects are team of two
Handins
Assignment due time/date specified in project description
Electronic handins
Appealing grades
Within 7 days of completion of grading.
Following procedure described in syllabus
Projects: Talk to your TA
Exams: Talk to your instructor

23. Timeliness Grace Days Lateness Penalties Catastrophic Events Advice
4 grace days for the course
Covers scheduling crunch, out-of-town trips, illnesses, minor setbacks
Save them until late in the term!
Lateness Penalties
Once grace days used up, penalized 10% / “day”
Catastrophic Events
Major illness, death in family, …
Work with your academic advisor to formulate plan for getting back on track
Advice
Once you start running late, it’s really hard to catch up

24. Cheating What is cheating? Penalty for cheating:
Sharing code: either by copying, retyping, looking at, or supplying a copy of a file.
Coaching: helping your friend to write a lab, line by line.
Copying code from previous course or from elsewhere on WWW
Only allowed to use code we supply, or from textbook student website
What is NOT cheating?
Explaining how to use systems or tools.
Helping others with high-level design issues.
Penalty for cheating:
Zero on your project and 1 letter grade reduction in final grade
You WILL be reported to the UMBC Academic Conduct Committee
Detection of cheating:
We do check and our tools for doing this are much better than you think!
Checking may be performed at any time during the semester

25. C Programming Topics Variables, arrays, structs Control flow Pointers
Functions
Multi-file programs
Makefiles

26. Programs and Data Topics
Bits operations, arithmetic, assembly language programs, representation of C control and data structures
Includes aspects of architecture and compilers

27. The Memory Hierarchy Topics
Memory technology, memory hierarchy, caches, disks, locality
Includes aspects of architecture and OS.

28. Virtual Memory
Topics
Virtual memory, address translation, dynamic storage allocation
Includes aspects of architecture and OS

29. Project Rationale
Each project should have a well-defined goal such as solving a puzzle or winning a contest.
Doing a project should result in new skills and concepts
We try to use competition in a fun and healthy way.
Set a reasonable threshold for full credit.
Post intermediate results on Web page for glory!
Contests for extra credit

30. Good Luck!