1. Perception and Personality in Organizations.
Perception and Personality in Organizations

2. Foundations of Individual Behaviour

3. “ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”

4. Perception
“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process through which we interpret and organize sensory information to produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.” “ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.

5. Perception
“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment ”.

6. Perceptual Process Model
Environmental Stimuli
Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting
Selective Attention
Organization and
Interpretation
Attitudes and
Behaviours

7. The Perceptual Process
Sensation
An individual’s ability to detect stimuli in the immediate environment.
Selection
The process a person uses to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others for further processing.
Organization
The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for “storage.”
Interpretation
The stage of the perceptual process at which stimuli are interpreted and given meaning.

8. Selective Attention Characteristics of the object Perceptual context
size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty
Perceptual context
Characteristics of the perceiver
attitudes
perceptual defense
expectations -- condition us to expect events

9. Factors in the Target
Motion
Novelty
Sounds
Size
Background
Proximity
Similarity
Factors in the perceiver
Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Experience
Expectations
Perception
Factors in the situation
Time
Work Setting
Social Setting

10. Figure-Ground Illustration
Field-ground differentiation
The tendency to distinguish and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure as opposed to background.

13. PERCEPTUAL GROUPING
Our tendency to group several individual stimuli into a meaningful and recognizable pattern.
It is very basic in nature and largely it seems to be inborn.
Some factors underlying grouping are
-continuity -closure
-proximity -similarity

18. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
is the cause of the behavior seen as internal or external? we look for three types of information to decide:
DISTINCTIVENESS : Is this person’s performance different on other tasks and in other situations?
CONSISTENCY : Over time, is there a change in behavior or results on this task by this person?
CONSENSUS : Do others perform or behave similarly when in a similar position?
“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental causes)
“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal causes)

19. Attribution Theory observation Interpretation H External L Internal H
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.
Attribution of cause
observation
Interpretation H
External
Distictinctiveness L
Internal H
Individual
behavior
External
Consensus L
Internal H
Internal
Consistency L
External
H –high L- Low

20. Distinctiveness Consensus Consistency
Does this person
behave in
this manner
in other situation
Consensus
Do other person
Behave in the
Same manner?
Consistency
Does this person
behave
in this same
manner at other
times ?
Internal
Attribution No
Low
Consensus
Yes
High
YES
Low
Distinctiveness NO
High
Yes
High
Consistency No
Low
External Attributio n

21. PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS
STEREOTYPES : Based on appearance
HALO (HORN) EFFECTS : One outstanding characteristic noted
CONTRAST EFFECT : Ordering
RECENCY EFFECT : Limited recall
PROJECTION : “Similar to me” Error
SKEWING ERRORS : Central tendency, leniency, strictness bias
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY : People respond the way you “expected” they would
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS) : Filtering, selection,

22. ATTRIBUTION ERRORS THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR SELF-SERVING BIAS
the cause of poor performance (by others) is due to personal factors (lazy…didn’t try very hard)
SELF-SERVING BIAS
the cause of poor performance (by myself) is due to situational factors (poor support), not because of a lack of effort

23. Improving Perceptual Accuracy
Diversity
Management
Improving
Perceptual
Accuracy
Know
Yourself
Empathize
With Others
Compare
Perceptions
With Others
Postpone
Impression
Formation

24. Know Yourself (Johari Window)
Feedback
Known to Self
Unknown to Self
Known
to Others
Open
Area
Blind
Hidden
Unknown
Open
Area
Blind
Unknown
Hidden
Disclosure
Unknown
to Others

25. Defining Personality
Relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent internal states that explain a person's behavioural tendencies
Sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others and environment

26. Determinants of Personality

27. Big Five Personality Dimensions
Conscientiousness
Caring, dependable
Emotional Stability
Poised, secure
Openness to Experience
Sensitive, flexible
Agreeableness
Courteous, empathic
Extraversion
Outgoing, talkative

28. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Extroversion versus introversion
Sensing versus intuition
Thinking versus feeling
Judging versus perceiving
Courtesy of Thompson Doyle Hennessey & Everest

29. Locus of Control and Self-Monitoring
Internals believe in their effort and ability
Externals believe events are mainly due to external causes
Self-monitoring personality
Sensitivity to situational cues, and ability to adapt your behaviour to that situation

30. Personality Traits

31. Personality Theories Trait Theory Psychoanalytical theory
Social Learning theory
Self theory

32. Personality Traits
Traits are relatively stable and consistent personal characteristics
Assumptions for Trait theory:
Traits are-
Common but vary in absolute amounts
Relatively stable
Can be inferred by measuring his/her behavioral indicators

33. Trait Theory
Trait personality theories suggest that a person can be described on the basis of some number of personality traits
Allport identified some 4,500 traits
Cattel used factor analysis to identify basic traits
Problems with trait theory include:
Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop
Issue of explaining transient versus long-lasting traits
Allport

34. Overview of the Big “5”

35. The Trait Theory UNSTABLE INTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED STABLE Moody Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet
Sociable
Outgoing
Talkative
Responsive
Easygoing
Lively
Carefree
Leadership
Passive
Careful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
Controlled
Reliable
Even-tempered
Calm
Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active

36. Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to explain personality on the basis of unconscious mental forces
Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of our mental states
Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple structures, some of which are unconscious
Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our personality develops defense mechanisms to protect against anxiety

37. Freudian Theory Levels of consciousness Structures of Personality Id
What we’re aware of
Preconscious
Memories etc. that can be recalled
Unconscious
Wishes, feelings, impulses that lies beyond awareness
Structures of Personality Id
Operates according to the “pleasure principle”
Ego
Operates according to the “reality” principle
Superego
Contains values and ideals

38. Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms refer to unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious person from developing anxiety
Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments
Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others
Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the unconscious

39. Defense Mechanisms
Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons
Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideas
Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite state
Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development
Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original object of impulse

40. Social Learning Theory
It emphasizes on how an individual behaves or acts in a given situation.
It holds the view that the specific characteristics of a situation determine how an individual will behave in such situation.

41. Humanistic Perspectives
Carl Rogers’ self theory :
Self image
Ideal self
Looking self glass
Rreal self

42. Self theory We have needs for: Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
Self-consistency (absence of conflict between self-perceptions
Congruence (consistency between self-perceptions and experience)
Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
People with low self-esteem generally have poor congruence between their self-concepts and life experiences.

43. How personality develops or shapes?
Some findings:
Freud’s four stages
Erikson’s eight life stages
Argyris Immaturity to maturity stages

44. Freud’s four stages The Oral stage- Lasts for the first year
The Anal stage- Two to three years
The phallic stage- At the age of four years
The latency stage- B/w age of six to seven years
The genital stage-During adolescences & adulthood

45. Freud: criticisms and critiques
He studied very few people so not representative sample
Process of psychoanalysis interviewing- exhibit preconceived notions and biases
His measures/methods were untreatable
Definitions don’t lend themselves to experimentation
One’s personality is fixed and unchanging

46. Erikson’s eight life stages
Infancy- first year
Early childhood- Two and three years
Play age-Four and Five years
School age-Six to twelve years
Adolescence-Teenage period
Young adulthood- During Twenties
Old(sunset) age- Adult

47. Argyris Immaturity to maturity stages
From:
Passivity to activity
Dependence to Independence
Selective behavior
Shallow interest to deep interest
Short term perspective to long perspective
Subordinate position to superordinate position
Lack of self awareness to self awreness and control

48. Measuring Personality
Self report surveys
Projective tests ( Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Appreciation Test)
Assessment Centres

49. Assessing the Unconscious
Projective Tests
used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT tests)
How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli

50. Assessing the Unconscious -- Rorschach
Rorschach Inkblot Test
the most widely used projective test
a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach
Rorschach

51. Assessing the Unconscious--Rorschach
used to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

57. Assessing the Unconscious--TAT
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
People express their inner motives through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

59. AM I a TYPE-A? Identify the number on the scale that best characterizes your behavior for each trait.
Casual about appointments Never late
Not competitive Very competitive
Never feel rushed Always feel rushed
Take things one at a time Try to do many things at once
Slow doing things Fast (eating, walking, etc.)
Express feelings "Sit on" feelings
Many interests Few interests outside work

60. Results
A total of 120 or more indicates that you are a hard-core Type A. Scores below 90 indicate that you are a hard-core Type B. The following gives you more specifics: 120 or more points = A+ personality type = A = A = B+ Less than 90 = B If you score in the "A" categories, you need to be aware of your tendency to focus on quantity over quality. You may do better in jobs that are routine and rely on speed rather than creativity for success. In addition, Type As often experience moderate to high levels of stress.

61. WHAT'S MY BASIC PERSONALITY?
Quiet Talkative Tolerant Critical Disorganized Organized Tense Calm Imaginative Conventional Reserved Outgoing

62. Uncooperative Cooperative Unreliable Dependable Insecure Secure New Familiar Sociable Loner Suspicious Trusting Undirected Goal-oriented Enthusiastic Depressed Change Status quo