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Just-In-Time and Lean Production
Chapter 15 Just-In-Time and Lean Production
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JIT In Services Competition on speed & quality
Multifunctional department store workers Work cells at fast-food restaurants Just-in-time publishing for textbooks - on demand publishing a growing industry Construction firms receiving material just as needed
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What is JIT ? Producing only what is needed, when it is needed
A philosophy An integrated management system JIT’s mandate: Eliminate all waste
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Lean Operations: Best Implementation is Toyota Production System
TPS is a production management system that aims for the “ideal” through continuous improvement Includes, but goes way beyond JIT. Pillars: Synchronization Reduce transfer batch sizes Level load production Pull production control systems (vs. push): Kanban Quality at source Layout: Cellular operations Continuous Improvement (Kaizen): through visibility & empowerment ....
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Toyota’s waste elimination in Operations
1. Overproduction 2. Waiting 3. Inessential handling 4. Non-value adding processing 5. Inventory in excess of immediate needs 6. Inessential motion 7. Correction necessitated by defects
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Waste in Operations
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Waste in Operations
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Waste in Operations
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Flexible Resources Multifunctional workers General purpose machines
Study operators & improve operations
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The Push System Pre-planned issues of supplies/merchandise regardless of customer demand criteria Creates excess and shortages not efficient over the long run
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The Pull System Material is pulled through the system when needed
Reversal of traditional push system where material is pushed according to a schedule Forces cooperation Prevent over and underproduction
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Kanban Production Control System
Kanban card indicates standard quantity of production Derived from two-bin inventory system Kanban maintains discipline of pull production Production kanban authorizes production Withdrawal kanban authorizes movement of goods
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A Sample Kanban
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Types of Kanbans Bin Kanban - when bin is empty replenish
Kanban Square Marked area designed to hold items Signal Kanban Triangular kanban used to signal production at the previous workstation Material Kanban Used to order material in advance of a process Supplier Kanbans Rotate between the factory and suppliers
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Components of Lead Time
Processing time Reduce number of items or improve efficiency Move time Reduce distances, simplify movements, standardize routings Waiting time Better scheduling, sufficient capacity Setup time Generally the biggest bottleneck
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Common Techniques for Reducing Setup Time
Preset Buttons/settings Quick fasteners Reduce tool requirements Locator pins Guides to prevent misalignment Standardization Easier movement
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Uniform Production Results from smoothing production requirements
Kanban systems can handle +/- 10% demand changes Smooth demand across planning horizon Mixed-model assembly steadies component production
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Quality at the Source Jidoka is authority to stop production line
Andon lights signal quality problems Undercapacity scheduling allows for planning, problem solving & maintenance Visual control makes problems visible Poka-yoke prevents defects (mistake proof the system)
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Kaizen Continuous improvement Requires total employment involvement
Essence of JIT is willingness of workers to Spot quality problems Halt production when necessary Generate ideas for improvement Analyze problems Perform different functions
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Goals of JIT Reduced inventory - where?
Improved quality Lower costs Reduced space requirements Shorter lead time Increased productivity Greater flexibility Better relations with suppliers Simplified scheduling and control activities Increased capacity Better use of human resources More product variety Continuous Process Improvement
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JIT Implementation Use JIT to finely tune an operating system
Somewhat different in USA than Japan JIT is still evolving JIT as an inventory reduction program isn’t for everyone - JIT as a CPI program is! Some systems need Just-in- Case inventory
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Chapter 14 Resource Planning
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Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
Organizes and manages a company’s business processes by sharing information across functional areas Connects with supply-chain and customer management applications Largest ERP provider SAP
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ERP Implementation First step is to analyze business processes
Which processes have the biggest impact on customer relations? Which process would benefit the most from integration? Which processes should be standardized?
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Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
Plans and executes business processes that involve customer interaction Changes focus from managing products to managing customers Point-of-sale data is analyzed for patterns used to predict future behavior
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Supply Chain Management
Supply chain planning Supply chain execution Supplier relationships Distinctions between ERP and SCM are becoming increasingly blurred
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ERP and MRP MRP (material requirements planning) was the precursor to ERP Primarily a production planning and control system MRP evolved to MRP II (manufacturing resource planning) ERP and ERP II continue to extend the links through all business processes
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Material Requirements Planning
Computerized inventory control & production planning system Schedules component items when they are needed - no earlier and no later
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When to Use MRP Dependent and discrete items Complex products
Job shop production Assemble-to-order environments
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Material Requirements Planning
Planned order releases Work orders Purchase orders Rescheduling notices Item master file Product structure Master production schedule
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Master Production Schedule
Drives MRP process with a schedule of finished products Quantities represent production not demand Quantities may consist of a combination of customer orders & demand forecasts Quantities represent what needs to be produced, not what can be produced
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Basic MRP Processes Exploding the bill of material
Netting out inventory Lot sizing Time-phasing requirements
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MRP Outputs Planned orders
Work orders Purchase orders Changes to previous plans or existing schedules Action notices Rescheduling notices
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Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP)
Computerized system that projects load from material plan Creates load profile Identifies underloads and overloads
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Capacity Terms Load profile Capacity Utilization
Compares released and planned orders with work center capacity Capacity Productive capability; includes utilization and efficiency Utilization % of available working time spent working
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More Capacity Terms Efficiency – how well the machine or worker performs compared to a standard output Load The standard hours of work assigned to a facility Load percent The ratio of load to capacity Load % = (load/capacity)x100%
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Capacity Requirements Planning
MRP planned order releases Routing file Capacity requirements planning Open orders Load profile for each machine center
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Initial Load Profile Hours of capacity Normal capacity Time (weeks)
Time (weeks) Normal capacity 120 – 110 – 100 – 90 – 80 – 70 – 60 – 50 – 40 – 30 – 20 – 10 – 0 –
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Remedies for Underloads
Acquire more work Pull work ahead that is scheduled for later time periods Reduce normal capacity
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Remedies for Overloads
Eliminate unnecessary requirements Reroute jobs to alternative machines or work centers Split lots between two or more machines Increase normal capacity Subcontract Increase the efficiency of the operation Push work back to later time periods Revise master schedule
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Adjusted Load Profile Hours of capacity Normal capacity Time (weeks)
Time (weeks) Normal capacity 120 – 110 – 100 – 90 – 80 – 70 – 60 – 50 – 40 – 30 – 20 – 10 – 0 – Pull ahead Push back Overtime Work an extra shift
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Chapter 16 Scheduling
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Scheduling Specifies when labor, equipment, facilities are needed to produce a product or provide a service Last stage of planning before production occurs
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Scheduling by Process Type
Process Industry Linear programming EOQ with noninstantaneous replenishment Mass Production Assembly line balancing Project Project -scheduling techniques (PERT, CPM)
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Objectives in Scheduling
Meet customer due dates Minimize job lateness Minimize response time Minimize completion time Minimize time in the system Minimize overtime Maximize machine or labor utilization Minimize idle time Minimize work-in-process inventory Efficiency
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Shop Floor Control Scheduling and monitoring day to day production of a job Loading - Check availability of material, machines & labor Sequencing - Release work orders to shop & issue dispatch lists for individual machines Monitoring - Maintain progress reports on each job until it is complete
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Loading Allocate work to machines (resources)
Perform work on most efficient resources Use assignment method of linear programming to determine allocation
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Sequencing Prioritize jobs assigned to a resource
If no order specified use first-come first-served (FCFS) Many other sequencing rules exist Each attempts to achieve to an objective
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Sequencing Rules FCFS - first-come, first-served
LCFS - last come, first served DDATE - earliest due date CUSTPR - highest customer priority SETUP - similar required setups SLACK - smallest slack CR - critical ratio SPT - shortest processing time LPT - longest processing time
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Critical Ratio Rule CR considers both time and work remaining CR = =
If CR > 1, job ahead of schedule If CR < 1, job behind schedule If CR = 1, job on schedule time remaining due date - today’s date work remaining remaining processing time Ties scheduling to Gantt Chart or PERT/CPM and project crashing
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Sequencing Jobs Through Many Machines/Processes
Facility is dynamic, new jobs added Develop global sequencing rules First-in-system, first-served (FISFS) Work-in-next-queue (WINQ) Fewest # remaining operations (NOPN) Slack per remaining operation (S/OPN) Remaining work (RWK) Study system via simulation
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Monitoring Gantt Chart Input / Output Control
Shows both planned and completed activities against a time scale Input / Output Control Monitors the input and output from each work center
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Advanced Planning and Scheduling Systems
Infinite - assumes infinite capacity Loads without regard to capacity Then levels the load and sequences jobs Finite - assumes finite (limited) capacity Sequences jobs as part of the loading decision Resources are never loaded beyond capacity
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Advanced Planning and Scheduling Systems
Advanced planning and scheduling (APS) Add-ins to ERP systems Constraint-based programming (CBP) identifies a solution space and evaluates alternatives Genetic algorithms based on natural selection properties of genetics Manufacturing execution system (MES) monitors status, usage, availability, quality
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Theory of Constraints Not all resources are used evenly
Concentrate on the “bottleneck” resource Synchronize flow through the bottleneck Use process and transfer batch sizes to move product through facility
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Theory of Constraints What to Change What to Change to
How to cause the change
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Quality Management Quality is a measure of goodness that is
inherent to a product or service. Bottom line: perspective has to be from the Customer – fitness for use
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What Is Quality? “The degree of excellence of a thing” (Webster’s Dictionary) “The totality of features and characteristics that satisfy needs” (ASQ) Fitness for use Quality of design
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Quality Quality Management – not owned by any functional area – cross functional Measure of goodness that is inherent to a product or service
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FedEx and Quality Digitally Assisted Dispatch System – communicate with 30K couriers rule 1 – if caught and fixed as soon as it occurs, it costs a certain amount of time and money to fix 10 – if caught later in different department or location = as much as 10X cost 100 – if mistake is caught by the customer = as much as 100X to fix
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Product Quality Dimensions
Product Based – found in the product attributes User Based – if customer satisfied Manufacturing Based – conform to specs Value Based – perceived as providing good value for the price
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Dimensions of Quality (Garvin)
Performance Basic operating characteristics Features “Extra” items added to basic features Reliability Probability product will operate over time
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Dimensions of Quality (Garvin)
Conformance Meeting pre-established standards Durability Life span before replacement Serviceability Ease of getting repairs, speed & competence of repairs
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Dimensions of Quality (Garvin)
Aesthetics Look, feel, sound, smell or taste Safety Freedom from injury or harm Other perceptions Subjective perceptions based on brand name, advertising, etc
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Service Quality Time & Timeliness Completeness Courtesy
Customer waiting time, completed on time Completeness Customer gets all they asked for Courtesy Treatment by employees
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Service Quality Consistency Accessibility & Convenience Accuracy
Same level of service for all customers Accessibility & Convenience Ease of obtaining service Accuracy Performed right every time Responsiveness Reactions to unusual situations
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Quality of Conformance
Ensuring product or service produced according to design Depends on Design of production process Performance of machinery Materials Training
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Quality Philosophers Walter Shewhart – Statistical Process Control
W. Edwards Deming Joseph Juran – strategic and planning based Armand Fiegenbaum – total quality control “entire business must be involved in quality improvement”
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Deming’s 14 Points Create constancy of purpose
Adopt philosophy of prevention Cease mass inspection Select a few suppliers based on quality Constantly improve system and workers Institute worker training
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Deming’s 14 Points Instill leadership among supervisors
Eliminate fear among employees Eliminate barriers between departments Eliminate slogans Remove numerical quotas
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Deming’s 14 Points Enhance worker pride
Institute vigorous training and education programs Develop a commitment from top management to implement these 13 points
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The Deming Wheel (or PDCA Cycle)
1. Plan Identify the problem and develop the plan for improvement. 2. Do Implement the plan on a test basis. 3. Study/Check Assess the plan; is it working? 4. Act Institutionalize improvement; continue the cycle. Also known as the Shewart Cycle
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Six Sigma Quality management program that measures and improves the operational performance of a company by identifying and correcting defects in the company’s processes and products
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Six Sigma Started By Motorola
Define Measure Analyze Improve Control Made Famous by General Electric 40% of GE executives’ bonuses tied to 6 sigma implementation
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Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
Category 3 – determine requirements, expectations, preferences of customers and markets Category 4 – what is important to the customer and the company; how does company improve
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Total Quality Management
Customer defined quality Top management leadership Quality as a strategic issue All employees responsible for quality Continuous improvement Shared problem solving Statistical quality control Training & education for all employees
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Strategic Implications of TQM
Quality is key to effective strategy Clear strategic goal, vision, mission High quality goals Operational plans & policies Feedback mechanism Strong leadership
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TQM in Service Companies
Inputs similar to manufacturing Processes & outputs are different Services tend to be labor intensive Quality measurement is harder Timeliness is important measure TQM principles apply to services
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Cost of Quality Cost of achieving good quality Prevention Appraisal
Planning, Product design, Process, Training, Information Appraisal Inspection and testing, Test equipment, Operator Cost of achieving good quality Prevention quality planning, product design process, training information Appraisal inspection & testing test equipment operator Cost of poor quality Internal failure costs scrap, rework process failure & downtime downgrading products External failure costs customer complaints returns, warranty product liability, lost sales 18
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Cost of Quality Cost of poor quality Internal failure costs
Scrap, Rework, Process failure, Process downtime, Price-downgrading External failure costs Customer complaints, Product return, Warranty, Product liability, Lost sales Cost of achieving good quality Prevention quality planning, product design process, training information Appraisal inspection & testing test equipment operator Cost of poor quality Internal failure costs scrap, rework process failure & downtime downgrading products External failure costs customer complaints returns, warranty product liability, lost sales 18
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Employees and Quality Improvement
Employee involvement Quality circles Process improvement teams Employee suggestions
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Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Quality Problem Out of adjustment Tooling problems Old / worn Machines Faulty testing equipment Incorrect specifications Improper methods Measurement Poor supervision Lack of concentration Inadequate training Human Deficiencies in product design Ineffective quality management Poor process design Process Inaccurate temperature control Dust and Dirt Environment Defective from vendor Not to specifications Material- handling problems Materials Also known as Ishikawa Diagram or Fish Bone
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Lots of Hoopla and no follow through
Hot House Quality Lots of Hoopla and no follow through
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ISO 9000:2000 Customer focus Leadership Involvement of the people
Process approach Systems approach to management Continual process improvement – GAO Factual approach to decision making Mutually beneficial supplier relationships
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Implications Of ISO 9000 Truly international in scope
Certification required by many foreign firms U.S. firms export more than $150 billion annually to Europe Adopted by U.S. Navy, DuPont, 3M, AT&T, and others
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ISO Accreditation European registration
3rd party registrar assesses quality program European Conformity (CE) mark authorized United States 3rd party registrars American National Standards Institute (ANSI) American Society for Quality (ASQ) Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB)
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