1. Chapter 8 “Thinking, Language and Intelligence”
Cognitive Psychology
How we acquire knowledge about the world
How we think, form concepts, use language, process information, solve problems
Not considered appropriate for study in psychology until 1960’s
Thinking
The mental representation and manipulation of information
Solving problems, making decisions, engaging in creativity
Mental Images
We represent information in the mind
Representations are images, words, or concepts
Mental image
Mental picture (representation) of an object or event
A reconstruction of the object or event from memory

2. Uses similar parts of visual cortex as those for actually seeing the object
Advantage is mental representation can be manipulated – allows for many cognitive tasks
Gender differences in mental imagery abilities
Women – more vivid imager, better representation of still objects
Men – greater use in problem solving; better at visualizing moving objects
Concepts
Mental categories used to group objects, events, and ideas
Categorization based upon common features or properties
Types of concepts
Logical concepts – clearly defined rules for membership
Natural concepts
Include objects (such as fruit), activities, and abstractions
Rules for membership understood and applied, but less clear
Membership for category based on probability that item fits

3. Hierarchies of concepts – ordered from broad to narrow
Superordinate – broadest category (e.g. building, plant)
Basic-level
Most frequently used concepts category
Examples are house (in building category), flower (in plant category)
Basic – level concepts probably provide most useful information
Subordinate
Very specific regarding features
Examples are iris and craftsmen style house
Understanding of concepts refined through use
Positive instance – concept is exemplified
Negative instance – experience does not fit concept

4. Problem Solving
A cognitive process – mental strategies are used to solve problems
Previously discussed methods are insight, trial and error
Useful problem – solving strategies
Algorithms
Step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem
None may apply specifically to given problem
Heuristics
A rule of thumb that aids in problem solving and decision making
Backward-working heuristic – start from solution and see if it fits problem
Means-end heuristic – compare current situation and desired end result; create steps to connect or resolve difference
Creating sub goals heuristics – divide objective into smaller units and solve each individually
Analogies
Use and apply knowledge from similar problems solved in the past
Passage of time may actually help in seeing problem clearly

5. Mental Roadblocks to problem solving
Mental set
Relying on strategies that worked well in previous situations
May lead to quick solution to current problem
Hinders ability to find solution when prior method not effective
Functional fixedness – inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways
Irrelevant information – attending to this distracts from truly relevant factors

6. Mental roadblocks in decision making
Decision making – problem solving where one course of action is selected from among alternative
Examples of decision making roadblocks
Confirmation bias- sticking to initial approach despite evidence that does not support (preference is to confirm existing belief, ignore facts that might necessitate reconsideration)
Representaitiveness heuristic – assuming given sample is like all other cases; no true basis for believing this is so
Availability heuristics – basing decision on information that most readily comes to mind
Framing – decisions are made based on how alternatives are described

7. Creativity
Thinking that leads to original, practical, meaningful solutions
Thinking that generates new ideas or artistic expressions
Everyone has the potential for creativity; some show more than others
Creativity associated with higher levels of intelligence
Most intelligent not necessarily more creative; creativity extends beyond intelligence
Measuring creativity
Variety of tests
Most typically measure divergent thinking (finding new ways to view situations or objects)
Convergent thinking: interested in finding one correct solution
Cognitive processes that underlie creative thinking
Metaphor and analogy
Metaphor – one object or concept that us seen as like another
Analogy – comparing two things having similar properties

8. Conceptual combination – uniting two or more concepts into one novel result
Conceptual expansion – extending a familiar concept to novel application
Language
A system of communication composed of symbols
Symbols are arranged according to a grammar
Grammar – a set of rules governing the proper use of words, phrases, and sentences to express meaning
Components of Language
Phonemes – basic units of sounds in a language
Morphemes
Formed by combinations of phonemes
Smallest units of meaning in language
Include simple words (care, ball) but also prefixes and suffixes
Syntax – rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered in a sentence (or phrase) to form meaningful expressions
Semantics – the set of rules governing the meaning of words

9. Language Development
Children develop language in the same stages, at the same ages, universally
Language acquisition in young children usually occurs very easily and naturally
“language acquisition device – suggested by Chomsky; human is “rewired “ to acquire a language
Both nature and nurture necessary to learn language
Close relationship between language and thought
Culture and Language
Is the language one speaks related to how one thinks?
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Proposes that language we use determines how we think
Proposes that language we use determines how we perceive reality
Research does not support this idea

10. Intelligence Difficult to define
David Wechsler: “… the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, and to deal effectively with the environment”
May be multiple intelligences, or many indifferent forms of intelligence
Alfred Binet (French)
Commissioned (1904) by school officials in Paris to identify intellectually at-risk children
Binet and Theodore Simon developed an intelligence test
Test items scaled to what typical child of given age could do
Mental age – age level of work a child could do

11. IQ (Intelligence Quotient – suggested by William Sten)
Most widely used intelligence tests today: created by David Wechsler
Developed for pre-school children, school age children and adults
Test based on ideal that intelligence is a variety of abilities
Score consists of a deviation IQ
Test includes verbal and performance subtests
Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests
Standardization
Establishing norms by administering test to large numbers of people
Sample must be representative of population to which it refers
IQ score is based on difference from norm (comparison of your performance to a group of others)
Mean (average score) is 100
2/3 of scores from general population range from
Uniform procedures must be followed when administering test

12. Reliability – consistency of rest scores over time
Validity – when a test measures what it is supposed to
Misuses of IQ test
Parents and teachers may lose hope for a child with low score
Children may give up on themselves
Extremes of intelligence
Intellectually Challenged
IQ score of 70 or below
Difficult in coping with age-appropriate tasks and life situations
Mainstreaming – children with mild intellectual challenges are placed in regular classrooms
Intellectual giftedness
IQ of 130 or higher
May benefit from enriched, faster-paced academic programs
Category also includes musical, artistic ability
Motivation always important to keep them going

13. Theories of Intelligence
Spearman’s “g”
Believed that there was a general factor of intelligence that allowed people to perform well on mental exams.
Also supported the idea that there were specific areas of intelligence as well such as mathematics.
Thurstone’s 7 Mental Abilities
Didn’t support the idea of a general intelligence
Primary Mental Abilities
Verbal comprehension (understanding and making useful sense out of verbal information)
Numerical ability (understanding and use of numbers)
Memory (ability to store, retain and recall effectively)
Inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general)
Perceptual speed (ability to think quickly)
Verbal fluency (ability to find the right word at the right time)
Spatial relations (ability to analyze and manipulate objects mentally)

14. Theories of Intelligence
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
Musical intelligence ("music smart")
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

15. Intelligence
Is it Nature or Nurture?