1. Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
Psychology
Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
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2. Thinking
The processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions

3. Artificial vs. Natural Concepts Schema
Thinking
Concept vs. Prototype
Artificial vs. Natural Concepts
Schema

4. Blocks to Problem Solving Solution Strategies

5. A Problem
A situation in which there is a goal, but it is not clear how to reach the goal
A well-defined problem is one with clear specifications of the start state (where you are), goal state (where you want to be) and the processes for reaching the goal state (how to get there)
An ill-defined problem is a problem lacking clear specification of the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state

6. Interpreting the problem Trying to solve the problem
Problem Solving
Involves two steps...
Interpreting the problem
Trying to solve the problem

7. Blocks to Problem Solving
Interpretation blocks
Fixation is the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem
For instance, in the 9-dot problem, the directions do not say one cannot go “outside” the mental square formed by the 9 dots

8. Blocks to Problem Solving
Interpretation blocks
Functional fixedness is the inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one
For example, if you need a screwdriver but don’t have one, a dime could be used to serve the purpose of a screwdriver
Limits our ability to solve problems that require using an object in a novel way
To combat functional fixedness, you should systematically think about the possible novel uses of all the various objects in the problem environment

9. Blocks to Problem Solving
Strategy blocks
Our past experience with problem solving can lead us to mental set, the tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem
In the two-letter series problems, mental set likely hindered you because you viewed the letters in the series as single entities and looked for relationships between them, not each of the letters as part of some larger entity
Sometimes when searching for new approaches to a problem, we may experience insight, a new way of interpreting a problem that immediately gives you the solution

10. Overcoming Blocks
To combat the blocks in problems solving, ask yourself questions such as:
Is my interpretations of the problem unnecessarily constraining possible solutions?
Can I use any of the objects in the problem in novel ways to solve the problem?
Do I need a new type of solution strategy?

11. Solution Strategies
Algorithm
Heuristic

12. Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem
For example, using multiplication correctly guarantees you the correct solution to a multiplication problem

13. Heuristic
A solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems
May pay off with a quick correct answer, but it may lead to no answer or an incorrect one

14. Algorithms vs. Heuristics
When going through a new grocery store looking for pickles, you could go up and down every aisle, examining each product until you found the pickles
This would be using an algorithm
Or, you could look at the signs above the aisles and look for the word “Condiments” and assume that pickles will be on that aisle
This would be using a heuristic

15. Cognitive Biases

16. Intelligence Tests Controversies about Intelligence
Intelligent Thinking
Intelligence Tests
Controversies about Intelligence

17. A Bit of History…
First attempts to develop intelligence tests took place in late 19th century England and in early 20th century France
Embedded in the nature-nurture controversy

18. Terman
Lewis Terman at Stanford University used Binet and Simon’s test, after revising it for American school children
In 1916, Terman’s revision became known as the Stanford- Binet, and Terman used the classic intelligence quotient formula by William Stern, a German psychologist
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) X 100
Consequently, when a child’s mental age as assessed by the test was greater than the child’s chronological age, the child’s IQ was greater than 100
When a child’s mental age as assessed by the test was less than the child’s chronological age, the child’s IQ was less than 100
Note that the IQ formula itself is no longer used

19. Figure 7.15
The majority of people have an IQ score between 85 and 115.

20. Controversies About Intelligence
General vs. Specific
Nature vs. Nurture

21. Theories of Intelligence
Charles Spearman argued that intelligence test performance is a function of two types of factors
A g factor (general intelligence)
Some s factor (specific intellectual abilities such as reasoning)
Believed that the g factor was more important because people who did well on one subtest usually did well on most of the subtests, and people who did poorly on one subtest usually did poorly on most of the subtests

22. Theories of Intelligence
Cattell and Horn proposed two types of intelligence, which have been of interest to researchers in aging
Fluid intelligence refers to abstract reasoning, memory, and the speed of information processing
Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal and numerical skills

23. Theories of Intelligence
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences includes 8 independent types of intelligence
Linguistic
Language ability (e.g., reading, writing, speaking)
Logical-Mathematical
Mathematical problem solving & scientific analysis
Spatial
Reasoning about visual spatial relationships
Musical
Musical skills (e.g., the ability to compose and understand music)
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Skill in body movement and handling objects
Intrapersonal
Understanding oneself
Interpersonal
Understand other people
Naturalist
Ability to discern patterns in nature

24. Theories of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence proposes three types of intelligence
1. Analytical intelligence is essentially what is measured by standard intelligence tests, the necessary skills for good academic performance
2. Practical intelligence could be equated with good common sense or “street smarts”
3. Creative intelligence is concerned with the ability to solve novel problems and deal with unusual situations

25. Nature vs. Nurture
Most contemporary psychologists believe that both heredity (nature) and environmental experiences (nurture) are important in determining intelligence
The disagreement is over the relative contribution of each part to intelligence

26. The Case for Nature
Genetic similarity studies are important in determining the relative contribution of nature and nurture to intelligence
Identical twins have 100% genetic similarity
Fraternal twins and siblings have 50% similarity
Two unrelated people have 0% similarity
If intelligence were due to heredity, the average correlations between intelligence scores should decrease as genetic similarity decreases, and researchers have found this to be the case

27. The Case for Nurture
However, there are also results that support environmental influences on intelligence
For example, if identical twins are raised together, the correlation between their intelligence test scores is +0.86, but if the identical twins are raised apart, the correlation falls to +0.72

28. Both Nature and Nurture
The average correlation between fraternal twins raised together (+0.60) is less than that for identical twins reared apart (+0.72), indicating the influence of heredity
The average correlation is greater than that for ordinary siblings reared together (+0.47), indicating environmental influences because the environment influences of fraternal twins is more similar than for ordinary siblings at different ages

29. Both Nature and Nurture
There is a modest correlation between the intelligence test scores of adopted children with their parents, and this correlation disappears as the children age
The correlation between the scores for adopted children and their biological parents, however, increases as the children age
This stronger relationship between a person’s intelligence and that of their biological parents means that nature plays a larger role in determining a person’s intelligence than environmental experiences

30. The Flynn Effect
Refers to the fact that in the United States and other Western industrialized nations, average intelligence scores have improved steadily over the past century
Proposed explanations involve many environmental factors such as better nutrition and more education

31. Learning Disabilities

32. Figure 7.17
These written words show variations of the word “teapot” as written by individuals with dyslexia.