1. DOING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
DOING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE 1

2. Identify the Problem
“Problem” is the topic (it does not have to be a serious problem)
Review the literature
Operationally define the terms
Will there be observable data?
The first steps in the research process are to identify the topic (sometimes called problem or question) of the study. This need not be of tremendous social significance but generally studies worth doing are those which have significant impact on the people or the culture.
For the problem to be studied, there must be some form of observable (empirical) data that can be expressed in quantifiable or qualifiable terms.

3. Formulate a Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the presumed relationship between the variables.
It is not just a guess but is based on reviewing other studies
Hypothesis is what the researcher thinks will happen or thinks the situation is.
Based on the review of literature and his/her theoretical assumptions, the researcher formulates a statement that indicates expectations for the results of the study.
Ex: The more time one studies, the higher his grades will be.
Implied in this statement are a cause and an effect. The independent variable is the element that makes the difference (cause) and the dependent variable is the change that is noted (effect).
Ex: independent variable = hours spent studying
dependent variable = the grades that are earned
It is not always possible to be sure that the IV causes the DV to happen but a probably relationship between the two might be shown. This probable relationship or influence is called correlation.
Finally, always remember, the dependent variable must be something that can be observed, measured, counted, etc.

4. Variables
Independent variable – Think of it as a cause; what you start with
Dependent variable -- Think of it as the effect; what you measure or count
They change from study to study.
Correlation vs. causation
Hypothesis must be testable – there must be observable information

5. Sample Hypotheses
Students who read the chapter in the textbook before it is discussed in class get better grades.
IV = reading the textbook
DV = grades
Trouble sleeping may result from taking in too much caffeine
IV =
DV =

6. Design the Study Who has the data you need? Who is your population?
How can you find out what you need to know?
Draw a sample to represent the population
Implied in the problem and the hypothesis are a population who might benefit from your study and/or have the information you need.
If we are looking at study time and grades -- STUDENTS would be the likely population. It is often impossible to study a whole population so researchers isolate a smaller number to represent them (this is the sample).
We hope to be able generalize findings from the sample back to the whole population.

7. Some of the Methods of Selecting a Sample
Random Sample
all members of the population have an equal and independent chance
Systematic Sample
every “nth” name is selected from a list
Convenience Sample
those who are available and/or willing to participate
There are a number of methods for selecting the sample. Random is generally considered best because every member of the population has the same chance of being selected.
If there are characteristics of the population that need to be proportionally represented in the sample, one does stratified sampling.
For example, 60% are white males
20% are black males
10% are Asian females
10% are white females
The sample should reflect about the same percentages of racial and ethnic mix as the population. We would not want the females to be “left out” nor would we want them to be over represented.

8. Types of Research Designs: Past
Past oriented
historical studies
What was…(the situation regarding these variables)?
Precollected data; secondary sources
It is sometimes helpful to envision research according to a time frame. Those studies emphasize events that have already happened. These are historical studies and attempt to answer “What was the status of a population at a given point?”
Ex: What were attitudes toward the unwed pregnancies prior to the 1960’s?
Often the sources of data include school or court records, hospital charts, letters, diaries, artifacts, etc.

9. Types of Research Designs: Present
Present oriented - descriptive
What is the current status of … (these variables in a certain situation)?
Survey, observation, or field research
Present-oriented or descriptive studies report answers about the current status of a population as it relates to a particular issue.
Ex: if the election were held today, which candidate would you vote for? How do you feel about the proposed plan to rezone your neighborhood?
We gather data by asking questions, watching people or spending time looking at individual groups.

10. Surveys - Asking Questions
Interview
in person, oral
Questionnaire
on paper
One present-oriented (descriptive) approach is conducting a survey. In survey research we ask questions - either on written questionnaires or orally in interviews.

11. Surveys - Asking Questions
Types of Questions:
open ended
forced choice or close ended
The kinds of questions we ask either allow subjects to answer in their own words (open-ended). For instance, “Explain how you feel about abortion as a mode of birth control?
Other forms of questions have specific options from which subjects must choose. (True or False; Agree or disagree; Likert-type scales which as if you agree or disagree to a large extent, somewhat, not much, none at all, etc.) If the subject’s real answer is not represented, the researcher has no way to know what the true information might be. The subject is forced to choose one of the predetermined responses..
Which form of question yields the “best” information? Which form are subjects most likely to answer? Are there some topics or issues that are best approached using survey questions?

12. Observational Studies
Naturalistic
unobtrusive observation
Minimal influence on subjects or situation
Participant
becoming a member of the group being studied
Simulated
creating the scenario
Another present-oriented (descriptive) approach is to watch people. There are three forms of observation:
a. Think about the observation of the gorillas in the early part of the film Gorillas in the Mist. To get a perspective about the nature of gorilla life, it was important that the band of gorillas were not aware that Diane Fosse was watching them. When we study small children playing, it is best to observe them from an unobtrusive vantage point.
b. Jules Henry wrote about his research with families of young schizophrenic children in his book Pathways to Madness. He lived for a year at a time with these families -- studying their problem solving skills and their methods of communication, etc. He participated in the lives of their families as he observed and studied them.
c. Sometimes what the researcher wants to observe is an infrequent event. The situation is simulated in the laboratory or in some other setting. For example, if you are demonstrating that you have skills in CPR, you don’t wait for someone to experience cardiac arrest. You simulate the correct sequence of breathing and chest compressions on Resusi-Annie.

13. Field Research Case study Ethnography
in-depth look at one individual or group
Ethnography
cross-cultural studies (anthropology)
If you viewed the tape The Gods Must be Crazy for Lesson 1, you saw the comparison of a hunting and gathering society (!Kung) with an industrialized culture. Although a feature film designed for entertaining, The Gods Must be Crazy presents a simple ethnographic case study of the Kalihari Bushmen (!Kung).
Although many case studies are very clinical and uninteresting from a layman’s point of view, there have been a number sensationalized case studies. Other well publicized examples of field research include books/movies like Helter Skelter, a study of Charles Manson and his “family” of followers or Sybil, an in-depth look at a woman with multiple personality syndrome.
Anthropologists use a cross-cultural approach similar to the case study called ethnography.

14. Types of Designs: Experimental Research
Future-Oriented Studies
What will be if … (we manipulate certain variables)?
Experimental research
manipulating an independent variable
The third time frame according to which studies can be organized is the future. The essential question is “What will be if…the researcher manipulates certain variables?” This future orientation applies to the classic experimental design.

15. Experimental Design Pre-test Post-test Dependent variable
Control Group
Experimental or Treatment Group
As the researcher sets up the study, he/she premeasures the dependent variable, randomly divides the sample into two groups (a control group and and experimental group); and administers some degree of the independent variable to the experimental group only.
If the independent variable has a causal influence on the dependent variable, it will be noticeably changed and different from the dependent variable measurement for the control group.
Independent Variable introduced only to treatment group

16. Collect and Analyze Data
Employ the research design
Organize and analyze the data
Statistical analysis
Make decisions relevant to the hypothesis
“Support” or “accept” or “fail to accept” never “prove”
The final steps in the research process are to carry out the design as planned and collect the data.
Once collected, it must be organized and analyzed using statistical measures.
From the results, the researcher makes decisions relevant to the hypothesis.
If the results support the hypothesis, it is accepted. If the analysis does not support the hypothesis, then it is reported as “failure to accept.”
Researchers tend to leave some “wiggle room” to make different decisions when the studies are replicated. One study (or even several studies) on a hypothesis is rarely sufficient to “prove” a correlation and causation.

17. Report Results Publish findings Debrief participants, if needed
Support theoretical perspective
Spin off next studies
The last step is to report the results. Depending on the purpose of the study and the resources of the researcher, it may be an informal report back to supervisors or it may be a nationally publicized article.
It may be necessary to inform the participants of the results. For example, when testing a vaccine the control group receives a placebo while the experimental group receives the real vaccine (independent variable). If the hypothesis is accepted and the vaccine is shown to have some efficacy, then the control group should be given the choice to receive the real vaccine.
Generally, one draws conclusions from the results that serve to support a particular theoretical perspective.
One study often raises questions that can be used as the starting point for the next studies and the studies after that and the studies after that… … ...

18. Ethical Considerations
Do not harm the subjects
Informed consent before participation
Do not coerce participation
Do not deceive participants or sponsors
Use ethical means of data collection
Report results accurately
From beginning to end in this process, it is essential to operate in the most ethical way possible. The researcher’s integrity must be above question.
First and foremost, the study should do no harm -- physically, psychologically, reputationally, socially, etc.
Before agreeing to be a part of the study, participants have the right to all information that would be needed to make an informed decision. In a prison study in England in the 1950’s, subjects were relieved from their regular prison duties and paid more than twice as much as their regular prison pay for participation. They were told that they would be injected with “some cell” and then would be given regular blood tests to see if the cells multiplied in their bodies. They would be allowed to read, play cards, etc. in the prison hospital unit and if they did not like the study, could return to their regular jobs and routines. Many volunteered. At no time were the words cancer or leukemia used in the information provided to prospective subjects; but that is what the “cells” were. Once injected with cancer, how can on quit the study and return to regular prison life?
Notes continue on the next slide.