1. PSYCHOLOGY (9th Edition) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2010

2. Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Chapter 1

3. Why Do Psychology?
How can we differentiate between uninformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

4. What About Intuition & Common Sense?
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Preview Question 1: Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable than those based on intuition and common sense?
Intuition and common sense may aid questions, but they are not free of error.

5. Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome.

6. Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
WREAT
WATER
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
ETYRN
ENTRY
GRABE
BARGE
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).

7. Coin flip Number your paper 1-51 Predict the order Flip the coin
How accurate were you?

8. Perceiving Order in Random Events
We are prone to perceiving patterns
Random sequences do not often look random

10. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
Preview Question 2: What are the three main components of scientific attitude?

11. Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation
The Amazing Randi

12. How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions?
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
Preview Question 3: How do theories advance psychological science?

13. Theory
A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.

14. Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

15. Operational Definitions
When testing a hypothesis, we need to operationally define what we are measuring
We need to put into words how we are going to measure, needs to be observable
What are some ways we can define “self esteem”?
How can we define “depression”?

16. Replication Repeating a research study Different participants
Different situations
Check whether the basic finding extends occurs again
Generalizabitlity: Degree to which the results of a study can be applied to different populations

17. Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self- esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

18. Research Process

19. Is language uniquely human?
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Preview Question 4: How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?
Is language uniquely human?

20. Survey
A technique for determining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.

21. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effects
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Do you believe in space aliens? Vs. Do you believe in the possibility of life outside of this planet?

22. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest and best way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

23. Naturalistic Observation
The subjects do not know they are being observed
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.

24. Descriptive Methods
Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.

25. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
Preview Question 5: What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)

26. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.

27. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

28. Data showing height and temperament in people.

29. The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of

30. Positive Correlation
Number of hours spent listening to music increases as test scores increase
Tes t
scores
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
Each dot represents one person
Hours spent listening

31. Negative Correlation
Number of hours spent listening to music increases as test scores decrease
Tes t
scores
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60
Each dot represents one person
Hours spent listening

32. Correlation does not mean causation!

33. Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists.
Preview Question 6: What are illusory correlations?

36. Exploring Cause and Effect
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
Preview Question 7: How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect?

37. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

38. Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.

39. Independent Variable
An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of a new pill upon memory, the pill is the independent variable.

40. Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of a new pill on memory, memory is the dependent variable.

41. If the hypothesis is correct:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Causes

42. Double-Blind Procedure
In evaluating the effectiveness of a new “memory pill”, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real pill and which patients had the placebo pill.

43. Review!
Experiment testing the effects of breastfeeding on children’s intelligence.
What is the independent variable?
What is the dependent variable?
breastfeeding
children’s intelligence
Operational definitions: How do we define “intelligence?”

44. Experimentation

45. Below is a comparison of different research methods.

46. Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales

47. A meaningful description of data is important in research
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
Preview Question 8: How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation?

48. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.

49. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

50. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

51. Standard Deviation

52. Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean.

53. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.

54. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples.
Less-variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
More cases are better than fewer cases.
Preview Question 9: What principles can guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant?

55. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. It is probably not due to chance variation. For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.

56. Ethics in Research Psychologists study animals to learn about humans
Gallup survey:
60% of Americans deem medical testing on animals “morally acceptable”
60% of Canadians deem medical testing on animals “morally acceptable”
37% off Canadians deem medical testing on animals “morally acceptable”

57. Ethics in Research: Animal Research
Which animals have the most rights?
First priority: companion pets and primates
Second priority: other mammals
Third priority: other non-mammals (birds, fish, reptiles, etc.)
American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines:
“comfort, health, and humane treatment”
minimize “infection, illness, and pain”

58. Ethics in Research: Human Research
Informed consent
Participants given enough information to choose whether to participate
Participants give their permission for being used in the study
Protection from physical/emotional harm or discomfort
Confidentiality
Debriefing: Explanation of the study when the research is over