1. Age of Empires: Rome & Han China 753 BCE-600 CE
Introduction
The several centuries of success for Han China (202 BCE – 220 CE) and the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE) pinpoint possibilities for comparison in the classical period. They can also help and American audience combine more familiar knowledge, usually about Rome, with an appreciation for less familiar classical achievements, as in China. Both empires provided relative peace over wide areas, organized vigorous internal trading networks, and created immensely potent political systems. Elements of their achievements – Roman law, for example, or the Chinese principles of bureaucracy – would shape world history even to the present day. But the empires were also different, for example, in military and expansionist outlook and in cultural integration. These difference would affect the ultimate legacy of each empire.

2. Imperial Rome and Han China
Both lasted approximately 400 years
Both had populations of about 50 million

3. Rome Han China Natural protections-relative isolation Large landmass
Natural protections-central location
Able to utilize manpower resources of Italy
Mediterranean=“Roman Lake”
Hilly, fertile arable land
Many navigable rivers
Natural protections-relative isolation
Large landmass
River systems, plateau, deserts, mnts
North China plain-fertile but required extensive irrigation

4. Origins of Empire
Han China built on earlier imperial traditions started by the Qin and Zhou
Rome built on aristocratic landlords expanding out from a city-state
The two empires obviously had different origins
The Han dynasty sprung more directly from earlier dynastic activity in classical China, replacing a period of disorder under the Zhou dynasty (which supplanted the Qin dynasty following the Warring States Period) with a focus on the importance of political order.
Rome’s origins in politics had more to do with the control of the aristocratic landlords and the importance of a certain “democratic” or oligarchic element during the years of the Republic, both of which were overridden by the institution of the Empire.
Spread from homogeneous core to encompass territory of diverse cultures
Many in conquered lands adopted elements of core culture-”Romanization” & vice/versa
Most lived in countryside but urban centers cosmopolitan

5. Government Rome Han China
1st ruled by Kings, then republican oligarchy
Augustus set model for Emperor- established Principate-a military dictatorship-cult of emperor
Well organized bureaucracy founded on Roman law & classical learning-used local officials
“Standing Army”- best trained, best fed
Slave labor
Built extensive road system for military but also spread commerce & culture
Enemies on borders
1st persecuted then adopted Christianity
Dynastic Mandate-Emperor was “Son of Heaven”
Well organized bureaucracy founded on Confucian ideas & traditions-used local officials
Emperor promulgated the law
Military & civilian conscription
Built extensive road system for military but also spread commerce and culture
Enemies on borders
Adopted Confucianism
Used Confucian scholars as government officials

6. Politics Rome Han China Citizenship
Laws established by “Twelve Tables”
No idea of citizenship
Law promulgated by Emperor

7. Militarism: Both emphasized territorial expansion
Roman Empire
Han China
Perceived threats to security led to wars and conquests, which only increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats…which led to more conquests…

8. Economic Ancient Rome Han China
Agriculture-”latifundia”-large estates owned by wealthy
Significant slave labor
Received revenue from percentage of annual harvest
Degree of economic mobility for middle classes
Agriculture-Gentry-large estates owned by wealthy
Significant population growth
Agriculture directed by government; monopolies on iron, salt
Received revenue from percentage of annual harvest
Merchants & peasants paid taxes in coin cash & land taxes with portion of crop

9. Han China
Rome
Merchants: Itinerant, large scale, traveled extensively, often wealthy, special privileges
Merchants: marketplace-low status
Unprecedented growth in commerce industry
tributary exchanges w/ foreign countries
Coin currency
Government owned shops that competed with itinerant merchants to reduce their economic power
Merchants were 2nd rate occupation
Trade flourished: “Pax Romana”
Silk, spices
Coin Currency

10. Urbanization Rome Han China Rome Model for other cities
Prominent marketplace: Forum
Wealth derived from conquest
Colosseum, Pantheon, Hippodrome, Baths
Chang’an & Luoang
Model for other cities
Prominent marketplace
Wealth derived from private commerce, new trade routes, handicraft industries
Prominent marketplaces

11. Technology Rome Han China Roads, bridge-building, ballistic weapons
elevated & underground aqueducts
arches & domes
amphitheaters
sewage systems
concrete
Roads, canals, Great Wall
Astronomical observations
Watermills
Horse collar
Paper, crossbow trigger
Early seismometer

12. Integrating the empires
Infrastructure:
Massive road building projects linked crucial parts of the empires
Roads facilitated communication, economic activity, access to resources, movement of military
Rome – invented concrete & engineered feats like aqueducts
Yep – that’s a Roman Road, still around today. Looking good after 2,000 years.

13. Mechanisms for Political Integration: China
Confucianism identified principles necessary for political & social order
Emphasized emperors’ divine majesty, links to Heaven, morality through correct ritual (ancestor veneration
Developed a sophisticated bureaucracy with gov’t officials in provinces (staffed by middle class)
Imperial Academy & exam system meant ALL areas of China were cohesive & Confucian
Both empires worked directly for political integration using slightly different mechanisms.
In Han China, several devices combined to produce a political structure capable of ruling a vast empire.
The Han dynasty attempted to further Confucian thought as a means of inculcating certain values in the elite, and if possible, other classes. The emperors continued a tradition of emphasizing their divine or semi-divine majesty. Finally, the Han introduced the first clear system of bureaucracy, in which the central government designated representatives in the provinces.

14. Mechanisms for Political Integration: Rome
Bureaucracy less complex than Han – relied on local elites & middle class to control provinces
Greater emphasis on law codes- common legal system
Monuments & triumphal processions played up glory of empire & rulers
Cult of deceased Emperors
Rome had its own methods of attaining political integration.
Many Roman writers, particularly early in the empire, were eager to sing the praises of the emperors and the imperial system.
Rome developed a somewhat more rudimentary bureaucracy than the Chinese, but the Romans placed more emphasis on the legal system and the rule of law across the empire.
Rome did not usually assert the divinity of the emperors themselves, but surpassed the Han in imperial monuments, triumphal processions, and emphasis placed on the majesty of the emperor.

15. Citizenship & Colonies: China
Large colonies of ethnically Han (northern) Chinese planted in newly conquered territories
Use of Mandarin language required by elites & bureaucrats
Ideology of Confucianism enforced by the central authority
The differences in these two systems of empire still seem to fall within a context of similarities.
The Chinese regime worked harder at integrating its vast territory than the Romans.
The Middle Kingdom in China in the classical period was the scene of major ethnic mixing and division, particularly in South China. The regime tackled this head-on by planting large numbers of people from the heart of the empire in the north to the south. Additionally, Mandarin was required by the elite and all levels of bureaucracy. Other classes were strongly encouraged to adopt Mandarin.

16. Citizenship & Colonies: Rome
Colonies were military outposts-not intended for population integration
Latin encouraged but never took over Greek in East (people STILL looked up to Greek culture)
Expansion of Roman citizenship given for army service
Loose control-more local autonomy
Rome planted colonies in the hinterlands of their empire, but they were colonies of soldiers, and the hope was that they would begin to foster the Roman lifestyle among the conquered people of the remote provinces. These were smaller colonies and not intended for population integration.
The Romans encouraged the use of Latin by the upper classes, although it never managed to erase the predominance of Greek in upper-class circles in the eastern Mediterranean. The Romans emphasized the expansion of Roman citizenship to those willing to serve in the Roman Army. Despite these integrating devices, Rome was content to establish looser control over most of its provinces and to rely on local autonomy.

17. Imperial Power Both systems expanded functions of government
Used bureaucracy & taxation to provision major cities & increased coercion with military
Both governments actively engaged in economic activity designed to ensure stability
Han=monopoly on salt & iron
Rome=“Bread and Circuses”

18. Territorial Expansion
Imperial Rome
Imperial Han China
More militaristic
Needed additional territory as source of wealth & to pay soldiers
Needed continuing supply of slaves for labor system
Latin language helped unify
Provided opportunity for Roman citizenship
Pushed boundaries far beyond Qin homeland, but when reached sustainable point, did not feel need to compensate for cessation of expansion
Labor force not reliant on slavery – peasant population made constant expansion less necessary
Chinese script helped unify

20. Family & Society Rome Han China Basic unit of society=the family
Paterfamilias exercised absolute authority
High status males elicited obedience
Ancestors/family name important
Inequality accepted, institutionalized
Reliance on patricians
Patron-client relationships-system of mutual benefit & obligation
Basic unit of society=family
Emphasis on family ancestors-”filial piety”
Family hierarchy reflected in society
Ancestors played active role in everyday life
Reliance on landowning gentry

21. Role of Women Rome Han China Patriarchal No public role
Unable to own property or represent self in legal matters
Depended on male guardians
Less constrained than Greek Women
Over time, gained rights & protections
Some women very influential
Patriarchal-expected to be obedient
Quality of life depended on economics
Status & authority depended on society
Royal women could be very influential-Empress Dowager could over-ride decisions of Emperor

22. Religious/ Philosophical Systems
Early, both focused on rituals & themes to instilled loyalty to empire- neither intensely spiritual
Both exposed to new religions late in Classical Period (Buddhism in China, Christianity in Rome)
Both incorporated elements of respective beliefs as methods of political control

23. Religion/Philosophical Systems
Rome
(Paganism-Christian)
Han China
(Shamanistic-Confucian)
Divination
Polytheistic-adopted Greek gods
Calendar revolved around religious festivals
Invisible forces called“numina”
Rituals sacrifices to maintain Pax deorum-”peace of gods”
Christianity suppressed then adopted as state religion
Divination
Cult of Ancestors
Nature Spirits
Yin/Yang
Feng Shui
Confucianism-rituals & relationships
Daoism-questioned tradition-rejected hierarchy
Buddhism-syncretized as it spread to China

24. Decline & Fall Rome Han China Internal conflicts in military
Rivalries & divisions of authority due to vast size
Division of Empire into East and West
Christianity undermined traditional values
Conflict within ruling elites
Peasant rebellions
Generals usurped power=warlords-divide into 3 kingdoms
Northern nomads

25. Decline of Imperial Rome and Han China
Overexpansion led to invasions by nomadic pastoralists
Tax based weakened as land (wealth) was concentrated into fewer hands-paid less in taxes
Decline in morals/values
Urban decay=Decline in public health
Political corruption
Unemployment; inflation
Military spending
Lack of technological innovation
Western Roman cultural elements died out with the empire: change
Han dynasty was destroyed, but its institutions and traditions were revived by later dynasties: continuity

26. Why Was China Revived and Rome Not?
No Roman equivalent of Confucianism—no method or idea of political organization and social conduct that could survive the breakdown of the Roman state
Dynasties come & go, but Confucianism continues
Roman culture blended with Germanic to create new traditions
Many Roman characteristics continued into Byzantine Empire: law, Christianity, & military organization, etc.