1. Research Methods

4. The Science of Psychology
Psychology is empirical, meaning it relies on formal, systematic observations to address their questions about behaviour.
There are a variety of research methods available to answer different research questions and collect data.

5. The Science of Psychology
Recall that scientists will use the Scientific Method to collect, analyze, and report data:

6. The Science of Psychology
Once a researcher has come up with a hypothesis and has carried out their experiment using one of the many methods of research. It comes time to analyze the results.
Observations are usually converted into numbers, which constitute raw data. Statistics are then used to determine whether the hypothesis was supported.

7. The Science of Psychology
The final step is to write up a concise summary of the study and its conclusion
This is usually in the form of a report that can be submitted to a journal for publication.

8. Pre-Research Decisions
Before beginning an experiment psychologists must decide on their method of research and come up with a sample to study.
Sample: relatively small group that is representative of the total population under study.

9. Methods of Research
Read pages from Understanding Psychology (Kasschau, 2008) on your own.
Think, Pair, Share - Discuss each research method with your partner and come up an example of how the method might be used.

10. Naturalistic Observation
Method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering.
Allows researchers to study things that cannot be manipulated in a lab
Supports the external validity of research
Can be difficult to control - people may act differently knowing they are being watched
Difficult to determine the exact cause of behaviours

11. Case Studies
Involves intensive investigation of one or more participants.
Often long-term
Provides in-depth information
On its own it may not be representative of an entire population
Highly subjective

12. Surveys
Information is gathered by asking a large number of individuals a fixed set of questions.
Provides information on large numbers
Responses may not always be true and accurate (self-reported)

13. Longitudinal Studies
Data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same over time.
Accurate representation of changes over time
Time-consuming, difficult to keep track of participants

14. Correlational Studies
A research method that allows the researcher to examine the relationship between two different variables or sets of data.
Describes how two sets of data are related
Does not determine clear cause and effect
Does help researchers make predictions
ie.) Observation < Correlation < Explanation

15. Figure 2.1 - Scatterplot Data

16. Experiments
Type of research in which the investigator manipulates one or more variables to determine the effect on some behaviour.
Allows the researcher a great deal of control
Can identify cause and effect
Provides only an artificial situation that might not generalize well to the real world

17. Experiments cont.
Variables: conditions and behaviours that are subject to change. There are two types:
Independent - the one experimenters alter to observe the effects.
Dependent - the one that might change in relation to the independent variable.
Participants are placed in either the experimental group (exposed to independent variable) or the control group.
Example: Do violent TV shows and movies make children act more aggressively?

18. Schachter’s Study (1959)
Participants assembled in his laboratory were told by a “Dr. Zilstein” that they would be participating in a study on the physiological effects of electric shock. They were further informed that during the experiment they would receive a series of electric shocks while their pulse and blood pressure were being monitored. Half of the subjects were warned that the shocks would be very painful. They made up the high-anxiety group. The other half of the participants (the low-anxiety group) were told that the shocks would be mild and painless. In reality, there was no plan to shock anyone at any time. These orientation procedures were simply intended to evoke different levels of anxiety. After the orientation, the experimenter indicated that there would be a delay while he prepared the shock apparatus for use. The participants were asked whether they would prefer to wait alone or in the company of others.

19. Other Variables
Extraneous Variables are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
Researchers use a variety of safeguards to control for this. Including Random assignment of subjects, meaning everyone has an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

20. Ethics in Psychological Research
Ethics are the methods of conduct for proper and responsible behaviour.
The American Psychological Association (APA) published a set of ethical principles for psychological research.

21. APA Ethical Principles
Protect subjects confidentiality, dignity and welfare.
Obey all state and federal laws.
Agree to the rights of both participants and researchers before the research is started.
Acquire consent when required.
Only use deception if there is no better alternative and never about negative aspects of the study.

22. Read your article making note (underline or highlight) of:
Aim of study
Method
Results
Conclusion
In a different colour highlight or underline anything that may violate proper ethics in research.
Ethics Activity -

23. What ethical issues are present?
Review the experiment assigned to your group and identify the ethical dilemmas present in these studies. Specific questions for your consideration:
What ethical issues are present?
What is it that makes this ethical/unethical?
How would you feel if you were a subject in this experiment?
Does the information we get from these experiments justify the means of getting it?
Ethics Activity -

24. Problems and Solutions in Research
Self Fulfilling Prophecy: when the experimenter’s behaviour unwittingly influences the results.
ex) teacher expectations, Jane Elliot

25. Problems and Solutions in Research
Single-Blind Experiment: an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment.
Double-Blind Experiment: an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

26. Problems and Solutions in Research
The Placebo Effect: a change in a participant’s behaviour (or illness) that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment.
ex) energizer/tranquilizer drug experiment

27. Problems and Solutions in Research
The Hindsight Bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (“I knew it all along” phenomenon).
ex) Noticing it looks a bit grey outside then, when it starts to rain, claiming you were certain it was going to rain when you saw the clouds rolling in.

28. Problems and Solutions in Research
Due to the fact that psychology is based on behaviour watching, many of psychology’s findings can seem foreseen in some way.
“Good ideas in psychology usually have an oddly familiar quality and the moment we encounter them we feel certain that we once came close to thinking the same thing ourselves and simply failed to write it down” (Gilbert Pelham, Krull 2003).

29. Problems and Solutions in Research
Overconfidence: we naturally tend to think we know more than we do, confidence tends to override correctness.

30. Overconfidence Example
Unscramble these words…
WREAT
ETRYN
GRABE
Once you know the answer, it seems more obvious and you become overconfident.

31. Fore each hypothesis consider how you could design a study that would test it. Then, in the experiment that’s given, identify the independent and dependent variables.
Examples

32. Taking tests in hot rooms decreases test scores.
Students are randomly assigned to take a test in either a hot room or a comfortable room. Test scores will be compared to see if hot rooms negatively affect test-taking.
What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A. Students A. Students
B. Room Temp B. Hot Room
C. Test Scores C. Comfortable Room
D. Tests D. Test Scores

33. Why might you think that the participants in this study were the dependent or independent variable?

34. Newborns gaze longer at a drawing of a face than at a bull’s-eye pattern.
Newborns are shown, in random order, the stimuli: A face-like image, a bull’s-eye pattern, and a blank screen. Each newborn is timed to see how long they look at each.
What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A. Random order A. Newborns
B. Length of gaze B. Length of gaze
C. The stimuli C. Face image and bull’s eye
D. Newborns D. All stimuli

35. Why do the images need to be presented in a random order?

36. TV violence leads to aggressive behaviour in teens
Teenagers ages are randomly assigned to watch either a violent movie or an equally engaging but non-violent movie. Afterwards while playing a game, they are given an opportunity to punish their competitor by blasting a loud sound in their competitor’s headphones. The teens get to choose how long to administer the sound.
What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A. The competitor A. Length of loud sound
B. Type of movie B. Violent movie
C. Length of sound C. Teen participants
D. Teen participants D. Game competitor

37. Why did the control group movie need to be equally engaging?

38. When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when they are again intoxicated.
Participants are given enough alcohol to become intoxicated, and then they watch a 30-minute instructional video. The next day the participants are randomly divided into two groups. One group is again given the same amount of alcohol as they had the previous day. The other group is given a glass of water with a little vodka around the rim. Both groups are given a test on the material covered in the video.
What is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A. Alcohol A. Being intoxicated
B. Intoxicated again or not B. Vodka on the rim of the glass
C. Test scores C. Participants
D. Instructional video D. Test scores

39. What was the placebo here and why was it important?

40. Statistical Evaluation
Psychologists use statistics to organize and evaluate their data and support their hypotheses.
Descriptive Statistics involve the listing and summarizing of data in a practical, efficient way.
Inferential Statistics are numerical methods used to determine whether research data supports a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance.

41. Describing Data
Measures of Central Tendency describe something about the “average” score of a distribution.
ex) mean, median and mode
Standard Deviation is a measure of variability (the spread of data) that describes an average distance of every score from the mean.
Correlation Coefficients can range from -1.0 to +1.0 and will describe the direction and strength of the relationship between two sets of variables.
Another measure of variability is RANGE (difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution)

42. Mean, Median, and Mode

43. Figure 2.9 - standard deviation

44. Figure 2.1 - correlation coefficient

45. Identify 3 measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode)
Describe the standard deviation of our scores
Describe the correlation when scores were compared to hours of TV watched per day.
Activity