1. Teori-Teori Kerjaya Parsons Holland Super Krumboltz Gottfredson
– Tret dan Faktor
– Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran
– Tempoh hayat
– Teori Pembelajaran Sosial tentang Pembuatan Keputusan
– Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri

2. Tret dan Faktor (Frank Parsons)
Memadankan individu dengan pekerjaan
Mengenalpasti tret individu
Mengenalpasti faktor-faktor di tempat kerja
Memadankan individu dengan SATU pekerjaan yang tepat dan sesuai

3. Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran (John Holland)
Individu mempamerkan personaliti mereka melalui minat terhadap pekerjaan tertentu
Individu mencari persekitaran kerja yang membolehkan mereka menggunakan kemahiran dan keupayaan serta mempamerkan sikap dan nilai mereka
Individu and persekitaran boleh dikategori (6) berdasarkan personaliti dan keperluan personaliti

4. Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran (John Holland)
Realistik
Konvensional
Keusahawanan
Sosial
Seni

5. Tempoh Hayat 5 peringkat Pertumbuhan (lahir-14thn)
Penerokaan (15-24thn)
Pemantapan (25-44thn)
Pengekalan (45-64thn)
Pengunduran (65+thn)

6. Life Rainbow Establishment Maintenance Disengagement Exploration
Growth

7. Teori Pembelajaran Sosial tentang Pembuatan Keputusan (John Krumboltz)
4 faktor mempengaruhi pembuatan keputusan kerjaya
Genetik dan keupayaan istimewa
Suasana dan keadaan persekitaran
Pengalaman pembelajaran instrumental dan bersekutu
Kemahiran
4 cara mempengaruhi keputusan kerjaya
Pemerhatian individu
Perspektif global/umum
Kemahiran
Tindakan

8. Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri (Linda Gottfredson)
Batas – Proses pembatasan dengan membuang kerjaya alternatif daripada senarai berdasarkan umur dan status.
5 prinsip utama:
Kanak-kanak mampu memahami dan meyusun informasi yang kompleks.
Occupational preferences reflect attempts to implement and enhance self-concept
Kanak-kanak menggabungkan perbezaan yang kompleks (contoh:prestij) dan fenomena yang lebih kompleks (contoh: peranan gender)
Kanak-kanak memadamkan pilihan kerjaya tertentu secara berperingkat apabila konsep kendiri semakin kompleks dan jelas.
Proses berlaku secara berperingkat dan tidak terlalu ketara

9. Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri (Linda Gottfredson)
Prinsip-prinsip tersebut beroperasi melalui 4 tahap kognitif:
Orientasi tentang saiz dan kuasa
Orientasi tentang tentang peranan gender
Orientasi tentang nilai sosial
Orientasi tentang keunikan diri sendiri

10. Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri (Linda Gottfredson)
Kompromi – Mengubah pilihan kerjaya dengan mengambil kira faktor (dalaman atau luaran) yang membataskan. Ia akhirnya membawa kepada…
kompromi tahap usaha
Kompromi berdasarkan gender
Zon alternatif dan kemungkinan yang boleh diterima fikiran

11. Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri (Linda Gottfredson)
Pembentukan Diri – Termasuk proses pembatasan, merubah konsep diri berdasarkan faktor persekitaran dan pembangunan

12. Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri (Linda Gottfredson)
High
Psychiatrist
Surgeon
Federal Judge
Tolerable-Effort Boundary
High School Teacher
Elementary Teacher
Prestige
Zone of Acceptable Alternatives
Real Estate Agent
Nurse
Tolerable-Sextype Boundary
Receptionist
Tolerable-Level Boundary
Construction Worker
Low
Masculine
Feminine
Sextype Rating

13. Teori Kerjaya - Baru Lent, Brown, & Hackett
Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & Lenz
Hansen
– Teori Kerjaya Kognitif Sosial Social/Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
– Pemprosesan Informasi Kognitif/Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
– Perancangan Integrasi Kehidupan/Integrative Life Planning (ILP)

14. Teori Kerjaya Kognitif Sosial
Social Cognitive Career Theory
Developers
Robert Lent, Steven Brown, Gail Hackett
Robert W. Lent
Steven D. Brown
Gail Hackett

15. Pengaruh.. Pemboleh ubah dan proses kognitif Agen peribadi
Influences
Shift in field of psychology away from behaviors towards study of cognitive variables and processes
Trend toward viewing people as active agents in their career development (personal agency)
People are not “victims” of social and environmental forces
Constructivist
Pemboleh ubah dan proses kognitif
Agen peribadi
Konstruktivisme

16. Matlamat…. Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara individu dan
konteks kerjaya
Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor kognitif dan
interpersonal
Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara pengaruh dalam diri
dan pengaruh luaran
Untuk membina jaringan konseptual dengan teori
pembangunan kerjaya yang lain (Holland,
Krumboltz, Super, Dawis’ dan Loftquist)
Goals
To trace connections between persons and their career-related contexts
Individuals view of themselves as workers or future workers.
What is the total environment in which individuals make career-related choices
To trace connections between cognitive and interpersonal factors
How are individuals processing the self-information they get from others?
To trace connections between self-directed and externally imposed influences
What limitations do individuals place upon themselves because of perceived external influences
Intended to build conceptual linkages with other theories of career development
Offer a potentially unifying framework
How Holland types develop
How learning experiences influence interests in Krumboltz’s theory
What factors affect differential role salience in Super’s theory
How people acquire abilities in Dawis’ and Loftquist’s Theory of Work Adjustment

17. SCCT – Central concepts and assumptions
Instead of being trait-oriented or typologically related, person-environment interaction is dynamic and situation specific
Personal attributes, environmental factors, and overt behavior interlock and affect one another bidirectionally. In essence, people are products AND producers of their environments
Key Theoretical Constructs
Self-efficacy, not a fixed trait, but a dynamic set of self-beliefs, specific to particular performance domains
Acquired through:
1) Personal attainments *MOST INFLUENTIAL*
2) Vicarious learning
3) Social persuasion
4) Physiological states and reactions
Outcomes expectations, imagined consequences of engaging in particular behaviors – Beliefs
About extrinsic reinforcement (tangible rewards)
About intrinsic reinforcement (pride in achievement)
About outcomes derived from task process (absorption)
Goals, determination to engage in particular activity or to effect a particular future outcome
Interaksi individu-persekitaran adalah dinamik dan berlandaskan situasi tertentu
Individu adalah hasil dan penghasil kepada persekitaran mereka
Konstruk Utama:
Efikasi kendiri
Jangkaan hasil
Matlamat

18. Development of Basic Career Interests over Time
(Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994)
Perceived Abilities
SCCT – Segmented Models
SCCT conceptualizes interests, choice, and performance within three overlapping models
Interest Development Model
Vocational and academic interests are standard fixtures in career psychology
SCCT model focuses on experiential and cognitive factors that influence interests and the role interests play in choice and skill acquisition
Underlying premise – We will be interested in doing something that we perceive we’re good at doing, AND we’re more likely to practice and become good at something we’re interested in.
Thus, self-efficacy and outcome expectations highly influence interest
As people begin to like an activity that they believe they are good at and expect positive outcomes, they set goals for continuing to participate in that activity at the same or a higher level.
These goals increase the likelihood for actual increased participation in that activity.
As people participate more, their performance increases and they are rewarded, either intrinsically (enjoying improvement, skill development, etc.) or extrinsically (good grades, trophies, accolades, etc.)
Ultimately these attainments become influencers of self-efficacy and outcome expectations.
SCCT emphasizes that this is a dynamic process.
Note that perceived abilities and values are important parts of process that shapes interests.
Perceived abilities primarily affect self-efficacy, in turn, influencing interests
Values, defined as preferences for particular reinforcers or work conditions (money, status, autonomy, etc.) are incorporated into outcome expectations. That is, we expect to receive these things when we engage in certain activities
Self-Efficacy
Sources of Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectations
Intentions/ Goals for Activity Involvement
Activity Selection and Practice
Performance Attainments (e.g., goal fulfillment, skill development
Interest
Outcome Expectations
Values

19. Person, Contextual, and Experiential Factors Affecting Career-Related Choice Behavior
(Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1993)
Person Inputs
-Predispositions
-Gender
-Ethnicity
-Disability/Health
Status
Contextual Influences
Proximal to Choice Behavior
This model offers a couple of perspectives on how career choices are made and what influences these choices
First, we have the basic interest development model, with slightly different labels
Basic interests influenced by self-efficacy and outcome expectations which, in turn, affect our goals in terms of choices, leading to specific actions with their respective reinforcers, and, ultimately, feedback in the form of learning experiences
However, Lent, Brown, and Hackett now are attempting to demonstrate how other personal and contextual influences come into play.
First, let’s consider personal inputs such as gender and ethnicity. Lent, Brown, and Hackett purposefully elected to use these terms as opposed to sex and race. Gender and ethnicity connote that they are socially constructed characteristics. That is, they are the result not only of biological and genetic factors, but are the result of the experiences an individual has because of being a member of a particular race or either male or female. It includes opportunities afforded or denied because of these biological factors as well as the interpersonal experiences (support, indifference, hostility, suspicion, etc.) individuals are exposed to. For example, regardless of intentions, teachers and parents tend to treat boys and girls differently in terms of performance expectations, participation expectations, and the social reactions they are afforded.
This model also incorporates the diverse person, contextual, and learning influences on choice behavior.
Following the numbered paths, we see:
1-2 That self-efficacy and outcome expectations together promote particular interests;
3 That interests serve to influence goals;
4 That goals stimulate actions designed to implement an individual’s goals;
5 That goal-related actions lead to particular performance experiences;
6 That the outcomes from these performance experiences, in turn, revise or strengthen self-efficacy and outcome expectations
Additionally:
7 Shows the influential relationship between self-efficacy and outcome expectations;
8-11 Show that self-efficacy and outcome expectations may influence goals and actions directly, explaining why many individuals, in real world instances, compromise their interests in selecting vocational paths. These influences may include job availability operating in concert with beliefs about whether one can perform the required tasks and whether the incentives (rewards) are sufficient.
Lastly, background contextual affordances are those resources an individual perceives as being provided by the environment. For example, a scholarship to a particular college to study a particular subject or that a new company is moving into an area and is providing training for those wishing to be employed there.
Other influences are more “proximal,” such as emotional and/or financial support from family for particular education or training, job availability in a preferred field. Also included in this group are employment practices such as discrimination, glass ceilings, and cultural influences (e.g., parents choosing a child’s occupation or college) 12
Self-Efficacy
moderate 11
moderate 1 10 7
Learning Experiences
Performance Domains and Attainments
Choice Goals
Choice Actions
Interest 3 4 5 8 9 2
Outcome Expectations
Background Contextual Affordances 6

20. Implikasi Intervensi
Expanding interests and facilitating choice
Targets students
Tendency to prematurely foreclose on potentially rewarding occupations
Restricted range of efficacy building experiences
Inaccurate self-efficacy beliefs
Inaccurate outcome expectations
Strategies
Use of assessment tools to assess interests, values, and aptitudes
Target later discussions on those occupations suggested on the basis of aptitudes and values information but not generated by interest data
Modified card sort
Initial sort into 3 stacks
Might choose
In question
Would not choose
Second sort – sort “in question” and “would not choose” stacks
Might choose if I thought I had the skills (Self-efficacy)
Might choose if I thought they would offer me what I value (Outcome expectations)
Wouldn’t choose under any circumstances (Interests)
Other
Overcoming barriers to choice and success
Use Janis & Mann’s decisional balance sheet
Identify perceived potential barriers to career pursuits
Analyze likelihood of encountering barriers
Prepare strategies to manage potential barriers
Developing and modifying self-efficacy perceptions
Note that clients entering counseling with weak efficacy beliefs AND deficient skills are unlikely to benefit from attempts to raise self-efficacy. Recommended that these clients engage in extensive basic skill building activities or helped to consider alternative vocational or academic pursuits.
Self-efficacy enhancement strategies
Foster personal mastery experiences in areas where clients severely underestimate abilities
Augment with verbal support, modeling, anxiety reduction
Promote reconsideration of past performance experiences
Encourage clients to interpret past and present successes in manner that enhances perceived competence
REBT strategies for disputation of irrational beliefs, applied to career beliefs (Referred to self-efficacy manipulation by Krumboltz)
Memperluas minat dan membantu dalam pemilihan kerjaya
Menangani halangan bagi pilihan dan kejayaan
Membina dan merubah persepsi efikasi kendiri

21. Perancangan Integrasi Kehidupan (L. Sunny Hansen)
Integrative Life Planning (ILP) – Sunny Hansen
Focuses on adult career development
Described by Hansen as “new worldview for addressing career development”
Addresses diversity issues
Ethnicity
Race
Gender
Socioeconomic status
Spirituality
Emphasis on integrating mind, body, spirit
Planning connotes a sense of personal agency
Holistic approach by encouraging people to connect various life aspects
Memfokus kepada pembangunan kerjaya individu
“Perspektif Baru”
Membincangkan isu diversiti
Integrasi menyeluruh
Agensi peribadi
Hubungan

22. Andaian Perubahan ilmu menuntut cara baru dalam menimba ilmu
ILP – 4 Assumptions
1. Changes in the nature of knowledge support the addition of new ways of knowing to career development theory, research, and practice.
Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees develop skills of integrative thinking – seeing connections in their lives and in their local and global communities.
Broader kinds of self-knowledge (beyond interests, abilities, and values) and societal knowledge (beyond occupational and educational information) are critical to an expanded view of career, including multiple roles, identities, and critical life tasks in diverse cultures.
Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives and become advocates and agents for positive societal change through the choices and decisions they make.
Emphasis on social justice, social change, connectedness, diversity, and spirituality
Perubahan ilmu menuntut cara baru dalam menimba ilmu
Hubungan dalam kehidupan adalah penting
Ilmu tentang diri dan ilmu kemasyarakatan adalah kritikal.

23. 6 Fungsi Pembangunan Kerjaya
Menyediakan pekerjaan yang sesuai dengan konteks global yang berubah-ubah
Membentuk kehidupan yang lebih bermakna
Menghubungkan keluarga dan kerjaya
Menghargai pluralisme dan diversiti
Menguruskan transisi individu dan perubahan organisasi
Meneroka kerohanian dan matlamat kehidupan
ILP – 6 Career Development Tasks
Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts
Adults consider focusing on work that will result ina more socially just world
Environmental preservation
Understanding and celebrating diversity
Advocating for human rights
Exploring spirituality
What can you do to contribute to positive change for social and environmental justice?
Weaving our lives into a meaningful whole
Few things more personal than career choice
Occupational choices are intertwined with other life-role choices
Must be considered within this life-role context
Connecting family and work
Extension of second
Emphasizes life-role integration
Emphasizes importance of negotiating roles and relationships
Highlights need to examine gender role expectations and stereotypes
Life partners are partners in home and workplace
Valuing self-sufficiency and connectedness in both men and women
Valuing pluralism and diversity
Multicultural competencies critical for work and nonwork activities
Recognizes the importance of difference
Managing personal transitions and organizational change
Developing skills to cope effectively with transition
Suggests that transition counseling may be one of most important skills in career counseling
Important basic skills
Tolerating ambituity
Developing personal flexibility
Being able to draw upon reservoir of self-awareness and social support
Incorporate logical and rational decision making skills with intuitive orientations that typically value positive uncertainty and planned happenstance will help these types to be better prepared
Exploring spirituality and life purpose
Spirituality embraces purpose, meaning, connectedness, and sense of community.
Spirituality may or may not include religion
Career choices are spiritual in that they are expressions of one’s gifts and talents
Spiritual questions
What does work mean in my life?
What do I want to mean to others through my work?
Outcomes
Career intertwines with human development
Individuals embrace and celebrate life journeys, regardless of the path followed or led down
Attitudes of flexibility and openness foster development and give way to opportunities for learning and growth
Celebrate and embrace change
Career development interventions become more subjective and incorporate intuition as well as reason