1. Research Methods
Lesson 1

2. Lesson 1 Hypothesis (experimental and null hypothesis) IV and DV
Research methods

3. Check your understanding…
What is an aim?
General statement of what the researcher intend to investigate – essentially the purpose of the study
What is a hypothesis?
Testable statement setting out the relationship between two variables to be investigated
Why is it important to operationalise your hypothesis?
Clearly defining variables allows the researcher to know what is being measured

4. Independent Variables
EXPERIMENTS
The independent variable is the thing the psychologist changes or manipulates when conducting an experiment.
This is to try and discover a cause-effect relationship between the IV and the dependent variable.
Independent Variables
The name given to the variable in experimental research that measures/ observes any change in animal or human behaviours as a result of their exposure to the independent variable.
Dependent Variables
As a consequence we can discover if the change or manipulation of an independent variable has caused, or had an effect on how we think, feel, or behave; this change being measured is the dependent variable

5. Null hypothesis: What is a hypothesis?
Two hypothesis are formulated at the beginning of a study:
The alternative/experimental hypothesis (H1)
Predicts that there will be a significant difference
Directional or non directional (one tailed or two tailed)
The null hypothesis (HO)
predicts that there will not be a significant difference

6. Directional hypothesis
The alternative/experimental hypothesis (H1)
Directional hypothesis
predicts what way the results will go
Also called one-tailed
Non-directional hypothesis
Predicts that there will be a relationship between two conditions or two groups of participants
Also known as ‘two-tailed’

7. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis predicts that any difference between two or more sets of data will have occurred through chance alone
We focus on the null hypothesis because it eliminates bias from the research by forcing the researcher to consider the view that any difference found between the two sets of data has occurred through chance alone

8. Test your understanding

9. A team of psychologists were interested in studying the effects of alcohol on peoples' reaction times. Earlier research suggested that an increase in reaction time was due to the alcohol rather than peoples' expectations of alcohol. The psychologists recruited two groups of volunteers (an independent groups design) from a local university. Each participant's reaction time was measured by using a computer game.
The participants were then given a drink. The first group received a drink containing a large measure of strong alcohol; the second group received an identical drink without alcohol, but with a strong alcoholic smell. Finally, all participants were required to play the computer game again to assess their reaction time. Once they had completed the task, they were then thanked for their time and allowed to leave.
What is the IV?
whether the participants have had an alcoholic drink or one that is not alcoholic but smells as if it is
What is the DV?
reaction times on a computer game
Null hypothesis:
There will be no difference between the university students‘ reaction times on a computer game between those who have had an alcoholic drink or one that is not alcoholic but smells as if it contains alcohol; any differences are due to chance factors.

10. A teacher in a small secondary school wanted to find out whether there was any truth in her idea that students who used a computer regularly for their homework achieved higher exam grades than those who did not. She decided to interview a sample of 30 students taken from across the school. She tape-recorded all the interviews. She later obtained their end of year exam grades from their reports.
What is the IV?
whether the participants used a computer regularly for their homework or didn’t use a computer regularly for their homework.
What is the DV?
Exam grade achieved
Null hypothesis:
There will be no difference between the exam grades achieved at the end of year between those who regularly used a computer to complete homework and those who did not regularly use a computer to complete homework; any differences are due to chance factors.

11. Research methods recap (25 minutes)
Complete task 1 recapping your knowledge of…
research methods

12. You need to know examples of these and how they can be controlled
Research methods
A research method in which:
There is an independent variable (IV) manipulated by the researcher .
The effects of the IV on another variable are observed or measured. This variable is called the dependent variable (DV).
The participants are allocated randomly to the conditions.
Experimental methods
Laboratory experiment: it takes place in a laboratory (a controlled environment) and the researcher manipulates the IV
Field experiment takes place in the participants natural environment and the researcher manipulates the IV
Natural experiment: takes place in the participants’ natural environment the researcher does not manipulate the IV
The results can be influenced by other variables:
Extraneous variables
Participants characteristics
Situational variables
Experimenter effects
Controlled by:
Allocatio n
Sampl e
Moo d
Design
Personality
Hunger
I Q
Ag e
ABB A
Standardis e
Weather
Time of day
Inter rater
Bias
Double Blind
Correlational studies
Observations
Content analysis
Questionnaires
Interviews
Non-experimental methods
You need to know examples of these and how they can be controlled

13. Lab Experiments Field experiments Natural experiments
Advantages:
Strict control therefore more objectivity.
Standardisation therefore easy to replicate.
Disadvantages:
Artificial conditions may produce artificial behaviour therefore lack of ecological validity
Demand characteristic and experimenter bias
Ethics: problems of deception, …. possible
Lab Experiments
Field experiments
Advantages:
Greater ecological validity than lab experiments
If the participants are unaware of being tested less demand characteristic.
Disadvantages:
Less control so more possibility of influence of confounding variables and more difficult to replicate.
Ethics: consent, deception, invasion of privacy.
Advantages:
Great ecological validity
No demand characteristic, or bias due to sampling.
Disadvantages:
Very difficult to replicate
Hard to infer cause and effect due to little control over extraneous variables.
Ethics: consent, deception, invasion of privacy.
Natural experiments

14. Observations
Non-participant observation An observation that is conducted by someone that is not part of the group being observed. Advantages: can be ethical but do the Ps know that they are being observed? Is it in a public place? Disadvantages: the presence of the observer can alter the group’s behaviour. Impossible to replicate.
Participant observation An observation that is conducted by someone who is part of the group being observed. Advantages: high ecological validity if observer is undisclosed. Can give in-depth and detailed information. Disadvantages: difficult to record data objectively, impossible to replicate, ethical problems of consent.
controlled observations:
Uses tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour and systematic sampling. Two ways to structure observation: time or event sampling
Naturalistic observations: record what happens.
Advantages: High ecological validity, can be used as a preliminary study before a more detailed research.
Disadvantages: cannot establish a cause-effect relationship as no variable is manipulated. No control over conditions so replication is impossible. Ethical problems of consent and invasion of privacy.

15. Self-reporting methods
Questionnaires
A list of standardised set of questions is given to each respondent; they give their answers in writing
Closed questions
Open questions
Both interviews and questionnaires can yield quantitative or qualitative data
Quantitative data
Numerical data (in number)
Qualitative data
Data in words
Quantitative vs qualitative data
Easier to analyse.
Can be processed using statistical tests
Easier to compare people or groups
BUT
Lacking in detail and often superficial
Rich in detail
Can be analysed in more depth
BUT
More difficult to analyse
Difficult to compare people or groups
Interviews
Questions are asked orally
Structured interviews has predetermined questions.
Unstructured interviews: questions are developed as a response to the answers given
Types of Question
Open questions
Allow respondents to answer however they want
Generate qualitative data
Closed questions, e.g. Checklist, Likert Scale, Ranking
Restrict respondent to a predetermined set of responses
Generate quantitative data
Ways of administering:
Face to face in a private/public place / En masse to a group in a public setting / Through the post / Via the internet / Over the telephone

16. Strengths Limitations
Evaluating questionnaires
Evaluating interviews
Strengths Limitations
Strengths Limitations
Large numbers of questionnaires can be administered quickly: cost-efficient and less time consuming.
Easy to reach a wide range of participants from target population.
Completed privately and easily made anonymous: more honest (valid) responses should be gained.
Response rates are low, making it hard to generalise the results to the target population.
Response bias: only certain types of people will return the questionnaire.
Respondents may misunderstand the questions, leading to invalid data.
Participants might be influenced by social desirability (they will give answers which make them look good).
Closed questions give quantitative data, easy to analyse using statistical tests.
Open questions gather qualitative data which is rich in detail and depth
Time consuming to administer
The interviewer has to be trained
Open questions yield qualitative data which is more difficult to analyse and the interpretation can be biased.
Participants can be influenced by social desirability.

17. Case study and correlations

18. Can you think of any more?
Case Studies
It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to find underlying principles
Case studies we have looked at: HM KF
Little Hans,
Clive Wearing
Can you think of any more?
Usually involves biographical content, behavioural information and experiences
 Strengths:
Rich in detail which provides depth and understanding about individuals
Participants recall real experiences
Sometimes it’s the only method available – when unique behaviours are explored or sensitive areas where other methods could be unethical
Can use case studies to contradict a theory – helps question evidence used to support a theory.
 Weaknesses
Can not generalise so they are not representative – no 2 case studies are the same…question is whether we need to find a universal truth to behaviour though???
Most case studies will suffer with research bias – think f Little Hans and Freud
As we are asking the participant to recall experiences, we are relying on their memory. Is memory accurate? Is memory reliable?

19. Correlational Studies
A way of establishing whether there is a relationship between two variables
Assessing the strength of that relationship
unlike experiments, correlational studies do not tell you about causal relationships (we cannot say that it is because one factor varies that the other factor increases/ decreases)
Measure the two variables to obtain two sets of paired scores there is no IV or DV
Analyse the relationship by:
Drawing a scatter graph
Calculating a correlation coefficient
Writing an hypothesis for a correlation
Two tailed (non-directional) hypothesis:
There will be a correlation between variable 1 and variable 2
One tailed (directional) hypothesis:
There will be a positive (or negative) correlation between variable 1 and variable 2.
Null hypothesis:
There will not be a correlation between variable 1 and variable 2. any difference will be due to chance.

20. Correlation Coefficient
How strong is the relationship between the two factors?
Correlation Coefficient
Weak
Strong
No correlation -1
perfect negative correlation +1
perfect positive correlation
A statistical method for assessing the strength of a correlation
The sign (+ or -) tells you the direction of the correlation
The number (between -1 and 1) tells you the strength
Scattergraphs
Advantages
Can be used when an experiment would be unpractical or unethical.
If the correlation is significant then further investigation is justified
Disadvantages
A cause and effect relationship between the two factors studied cannot be established because other factors might be involved
To get the full marks you need to give an example and explain examples of factors which might be influential.
When one variable increases so does the other variable
When one variable increases the other variable decreases

21. Research methods
Lesson 2

22. Research method quiz

23. Task: Correlations What is called when both variables increase? (1)
What is it called when one variable increases and the other variable decreases? (1)
What is the statistic called which shows the strength and direction of the correlation? (1)
Using the following words, estimate the strength and direction of these scores (weak, moderate, strong, perfect, positive, negative, no) (7)
b) c) d) e) 0 f) -1 g) -0.95
5) Give two advantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2)
6) Give two disadvantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2)

24. Task – Case studies
7) Define what is meant by a case study (1) 8) Identify one example of a case study used in the topic of memory (1) 9) Give two advantages of a case study (2) 10) Give two disadvantages of a case study (2)

25. Answers - Correlations
What is called when both variables increase?
Positive correlation
2) What is it called when one variable increases and the other variable decreases?
Negative correlation
3) What is the statistic called which shows the strength and direction of the correlation?
Correlation Coefficient

26. Answers - Correlations
4) Using the following words, estimate the strength and direction of these scores (weak, moderate, strong, perfect, positive, negative, no)
0.25 weak positive correlation
strong negative correlation
0.5 moderate positive correlation
weak positive correlation
0 no correlation
-1 perfect negative correlation
-0.95 strong negative correlation

27. Answers - Correlations
Give two advantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2 marks)
Can be used when research would be impossible or unethical to manipulate an IV.
One can predict the value from one variable based on the value from another variable if they are correlated.
Give two disadvantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2 marks)
Cannot and must not infer cause and effect relationships
Can only detect linear (straight line) relationships.

28. Answers – Case studies
7) Define what is meant by a case study A non-experimental research study in which one person (or small group) are studied in detail. 8) Identify one example of a case study used in the topic of memory Clive Wearing; The case of HM; 9) Give two advantages of a case study Rich in detail – provide great depth of unique cases Useful for theory contradiction 10) Give two disadvantages of a case study Not representative Risk of researcher bias

29. Sampling task

30. Sampling

31. OPPORTUNITY SAMPLING
Opportunity sampling is the sampling technique most used by psychology students. It consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria you are looking for.
When we carry out research we need people to take part, these are called participants. It is important to use suitable participants in your study.
The population is the group of people from whom the sample is drawn. For example if the sample of participants is taken from sixth form colleges in Luton, the findings of the study can only be applied to that group of people and not all sixth form students in the UK and certainly not all people in the world because they are not representative (they might have different characteristics )
Advantages: quick and convenient
Disadvantage: unrepresentative of the target
population.

32. SELF SELECTED/VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
RANDOM SAMPLING
STATIFIED SAMPLING
This is a sampling technique which is defined as a sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involves identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked.
Stratified sampling involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.
Advantage: more representative of the wider population than opportunity sample as all categories of the target population are represented.
Disadvantages: difficult and time consuming.
Advantage: best chance of an unbiased representative sample of the target population.
Disadvantage: Difficult to do when the target population is large.
Self selected sampling (or volunteer sampling) consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert.
SELF SELECTED/VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
Advantages: convenient, no bias from the experimenter in the choice of participants.
Disadvantages: often unrepresentative, biased on the part of the participants- volunteers might be different from non-volunteers.

33. Quiz – True or False? Q1
A sample is a part of the whole group of people being studied
TRUE
FALSE Q2
A random sample is one where anybody who is available at the time are asked at random to be in the study Q3
A volunteer sample will always be biased because volunteers are likely to be very interested in the topic being studied and/or have a specific personality type (the volunteering type) that make them atypical of people in general Q4
Opportunity samples are often used in psychological research because they are cost and time effective and because other sample types are difficult to obtain Q5
A strength of a random sample is that it is assumed that chance selection will cancel out biases and provide a sample representative of the target population Q6
“The target population” is the same as “people in general” Q7
Student samples are ideal for psychological research, especially when psychology students are used, as they take the study seriously and are convenient for researchers based in universities
Stretch! For any that you believe to be false – correct the statements so that they are actually true!

34. Quiz – True or False? (Be honest )
A sample is a part of the whole group of people being studied
TRUE
FALSE Q2
A random sample is one where anybody who is available at the time are asked at random to be in the study Q3
A volunteer sample will always be biased because volunteers are likely to be very interested in the topic being studied and/or have a specific personality type (the volunteering type) that make them atypical of people in general Q4
Opportunity samples are often used in psychological research because they are cost and time effective and because other sample types are difficult to obtain Q5
A strength of a random sample is that it is assumed that chance selection will cancel out biases and provide a sample representative of the target population Q6
“The target population” is the same as “people in general” Q7
Student samples are ideal for psychological research, especially when psychology students are used, as they take the study seriously and are convenient for researchers based in universities
Stretch! For any that you believe to be false – correct the statements so that they are actually true!

35. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Repeated measures design
Participants take part in both conditions of the experiment (1 group)
Advantages:
Avoids the problem of participant variables. Fewer people are needed.
Disadvantages:
Order effects are more likely to occur.
Demand characteristic more likely as participants might guess the aim as they take part in all the conditions.
There are 3 different ways to carry out the experiment with participants. These are known as Experimental Designs.
Independent measures design
Counterbalancing: Alternating the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment. For example, group 1 does ‘A’ then ‘B’, group 2 does ‘B’ then ‘A’ this is to eliminate order effects.
Participants only take part in one condition of the experiment (2 separate groups)
Matched pairs design
Advantages: Avoids order effects. If a person is involved in several tests they man become bored or tired . Less demand characteristic as they do only one condition.
Disadvantages: More people are needed than with the repeated measures design . Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in age, sex or social background. These differences are known as participant variables.
Participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may have an effect on their performance. e.g. A memory test
Advantages: Reduces participant variables. Avoids order effects.
Disadvantages: Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs. Impossible to match people exactly. Requires more participants.

36. Next lesson (Lesson 3)
For those of you that would like to read ahead….
Pilot studies
Ethical issues
Peer review
How we create….

37. Research methods
Lesson 3